PRACTICAL 
CABINET  MAKER 


AND 


The  PRACTICAL 
CABINET   MAKER 

AND 

Furniture   Designer's  Assistant 

WITH  ESSAYS  ON 

HISTORY  OF  FURNITURE,  TASTE  IN  DESIGN,  COLOR 
AND  MATERIALS,  WITH  FULL  EXPLANATION  OF 
THE  CANONS  OF  GOOD  TASTE  IN  FURNITURE 

Together  with  Many  Practical  Directions  for  Making 
Cabinet  Work  Generally,  and  a  Number  of  Pieces  of 
Furniture  in  Particular,  along  with  Hundreds  of  Recipes 
for  Finishing,  Staining,  Varnishing,  Polishing  and 
Gilding  all  kinds  of  Cabinet  Work  ::  ::  :: 

By  FRED  T.  HODGSON,  F.  R.  I.  C.  A. 

Author  of  "PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  STEEL  SOJJARK,"  "MODERN 
CARPENTRY,"  "HARDWOOD  FINISHER,  WOOD-CARVING,"  ETC.,  ETC. 


Beautifully     and     Copiously      Illustrated      with     over     200      Drawings 

and  Sketches,  Showing   Various  Styles  of  Furniture,  from  the 

Most  Ancient  to  the  Most  Modern 


CHICAGO 
FREDERICK  J.  DRAKE  &  CO.,   PUBLISHERS 


Copyright    1910 

by 

Frederick  J.  Drake  &  Co. 
Chicago 


Printed  in  C    S.  A. 


PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 

In  preparing  this  work,  I  think  it  unnecessary  to 
waste  time  and  space  in  publishing  a  preface,  which 
would  at  least  occupy  from  three  to  five  pages,  and 
which  at  best,  would  be  of  little  service  to  my  readers ; 
so  I  will  content  myself,  and  perhaps  serve  my  readers 
better  by  inserting  in  these  remarks  the  gist  of  what 
would  be  expected  to  appear  in  a  preface,  along  with 
other  material  that  may  be  both  interesting  and  useful. 

In  these  days,  specialization  in  "Furniture-making" 
has  in  a  great  measure  robbed  the  trade  of  many  of  its 
charms,  as  well  as  its  claims  to  the  dignified  position  it 
once  held. 

In  the  "good  old  times"  every  man  who  could  hold 
up  his  head  and  say  truthfully  "I  am  a  CABINET- 
MAKER/' meant  that  he  had  given  long  years  of  appren- 
ticeship to  every  branch  and  every  detail  of  the  busi- 
ness. His  assertion,  when  interpreted,  meant  "that  he 
could  take  timber,  saw  it,  plane  it,  mould  it,  glue  it, 
veneer  it,  join  it,  carve  it,  finish  it,  and  upholster  it, 
all  by  hand."  It  meant  a  full  knowledge  of  everything 
connected  with  the  manufacture  from  the  entrance  to 
the  yard  and  to  that  of  the  wareroom.  What  might  be 
expected  of  such  workmen,  in  the  way  of  completeness 


10  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

and  thoroughness,  could  be  had  for  the  hiring.  Their 
experience  was  indelibly  stamped  upon  their  work. 

Invention  has  disarranged  this  most  certainly.  The 
labor-saving  machinery  of  later  years  has  dispensed 
with  something  of  the  old-time  necessity.  Circular 
saws,  jig  and  band  saws,  stickers,  planers,  jointers, 
carvers,  and  the  many  contrivances  for  economizing 
time,  have  made  those  long  terms  of  apprenticeship  in 
.a  measure,  unnecessary,  and  to-day  men  are  not  CABI- 
NET-MAKERS in  the  sense  we  have  referred  to,  but  they 
are  competent  to  do  either  circular-sawing,  band-saw- 
ing, moulding,  or  planing,  etc.,  alone,  and  but  little  else. 
This  subdivision  of  labor  has  been  the  outgrowth  of 
the  advance  of  invention. 

Often  you  will  have  among  your  applicants  for 
work,  men  who  belong  to  both  classes — representatives 
of  the  "old  school"  as  it  were,  and  fledgelings  who, 
having  rubbed  furniture  three  months  in  some  manu- 
factory, and  consider  themselves  fit  subjects  for  a  di- 
ploma. It  will  be  found  to  be  advantageous  to  mix 
these  two  elements.  Each  has  claims  which  are  worthy 
of  consideration.  The  former  class,  from  having  been 
drilled  so  faithfully  in  every  department  of  the  work ; 
although  workmen  of  this  class  are  apt  to  be  wedded  a 
little  too  firmly  to  the  methods  in  use  when  they  were 
apprentices.  Workmen  of  the  latter  kind  are  progres- 
sive, and  restless  under  restraint;  perhaps  a  little  too 
much  so  sometimes.  But  the  two  average  well,  and  the 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  11 

conservatism  of  the  one  holds  in  check  the  radicalism 
of  the  other. 

The  bench  hands,  bear  in  mind,  must  be  men  of  ex- 
perience, with  this  quality  more  or  less  extended  as  the 
quality  of  the  work  may  require.  In  cases  where  most 
of  the  work  is  machine  work,  the  manufacturer  will 
readily  perceive  that  he  can,  with  advantage  to  him- 
self, engage  the  services  of  a  class  of  men  whose 
knowledge  is  confined  exclusively  to  the  machine  they 
pledge  themselves  to  run.  Migratory  workmen  are  a 
curse  to  themselves  and  the  manufacturer.  They  are 
the  best  examples  of  the  saying:  "A  rolling  stone 
gathers  no  moss." 

The  close  subdivision  of  work  in  our  best  manufac- 
tories is  conducive  to  uniform  and  generally  good  re- 
sults, that  is,  that  the  tools  and  machines  produced  are 
of  equable  quality  and  uniform  in  build. 

•  The  system  that  includes  the  individual  workman 
only  as  the  intelligent  part  of  the  machinery  is  admirable 
as  making  him  an  exact  reproducing  agent,  and  conse- 
quently aiding  in  uniform  results;  but  it  is  to  be  ques- 
tioned whether  it  is  the  best  plan  to  make  intelligent 
practical  machines.  It  may  be  that  possible  excellence 
by  it  will  be  sacrificed  to  tolerable  uniformity.  Good 
mechanics  of  fifty-five  years  ago  have  little  sympathy 
with  a  system  that  lowers  the  status  of  mechanical  con- 
ditions to  the  level  of  the  machine  attendant,  or  the 
monotonous  worker  at  a  single  branch.  This  system  is 


12  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

not  consonant  with  the  freedom  of  individual  endeavour 
that  seems  to  be  a  part  of  the  American  mechanics' 
aspirations. 

After  all  the  old-time  job  shop  was  about  as  reason- 
able a  school  as  the  embryo  mechanic  could  desire.  The 
foreman  of  .one  of  the  best  known  establishments  in 
this  country  recently  died.  In  conversation  long  ago 
he  stated  that  his  intimate  knowledge  of  the  different 
departments  of  the  work  was  got  from  his  experience 
in  a  "job  shop,"  where  he  had  a  chance  at  everything, 
from  the  lathe  to  the  carving  room.  He  made  his  own 
drawings  (sketches),  and  frequently  made  his  own 
designs.  These  accomplishments  may  have  been  crude, 
but  they  gave  him  the  idea  of  how  a  job  should  be  done, 
as  well  as  what  was  to  be  accomplished.  He  was  an 
example  of  one  sort  of  a  practical  mechanic,  of  which 
there  should  be  more. 

Since  the  grand  art  movement,  of  which  Victor 
Hugo's  "Notre-Dame  de  Paris"  was  the  most  brilliant 
expression,  the  taste  for  art  objects  has  gradually  de- 
veloped with  an  intensity  almost  incredible.  The  stuffs, 
the  china-ware,  and  above  all  the  furniture  of  preced- 
ing centuries,  are,  now  that  they  are  old  and  battered, 
always  sold  for  prices  far  higher,  because  of  their 
excellence  of  construction  and  design.  In  this  ten- 
dency it  would  be  wrong  to  see  nothing  but  a  single 
fashion,  a  mania  and  an  exaggeration,  based  upon  fan- 
tasy and  imitation ;  all  the  men  of  taste  of  one  nation, 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  13 

or,  we  might  well  say,  of  all  great  nations  in  the  world, 
could  not  possibly  be  deceived  to  this  extent,  and  with 
this  unanimity  of  their  fantasy,  had  it  not  a  solid  and 
serious  basis.  And  this  fashion  for  antique  furniture 
does  not  rest  upon  a  very  reasonable  and  very  logical 
foundation, — at  first  in  its  disdain  for  phantom  furni- 
ture, which,  through  the  perfecting  of  wood-working 
machines,  has  arrived  at  the  last  degrees  of  veneer, 
scarcely  presenting  the  slightest  degree  of  solidity, 
the  mahogany,  oak,  walnut,  and  rose-wood  with  which 
they  are  coated  cracking  at  the  slightest  shock,  and  peel- 
ing off  at  the  least  change  in  the  dampness  or  dryness 
of  the  weather.  All  the  world,  too,  knows  equally  well 
that  the  homely  furniture  of  thirty  years  ago,  Queen 
Anne  and  Eastlake,  is  equally  inelegant  in  appearance, 
and  uncomfortable  in  use.  There  is,  then,  in  the  desire 
of  purchasing  antique  furniture,  the  just  idea  of  pro- 
curing articles  altogether  solidly  built,  the  form  of 
which  is  always,  if  not  absolutely  conformable  to  the 
rules  of  art,  at  least  entirely  different  from  the  veneer 
articles  which,  from  their  nature,  can  only  be  subject 
to  very  limited  number  of  combinations,  and  can  never 
furnish  to  the  taste  of  architects  and  designers  the 
same  resources  as  solid  wood.  A  longing  to  escape 
from  the  cold  and  monotonous  furniture  of  the  preced- 
ing generation  added  to  the  renaissance  movement  of 
the  year  of  1800,  caused  a  greedy  demand  for  antique 
furniture  to  suddenly  arise ;  but  when  all  of  those  arti- 


14  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

cles  which  had  remained  sound  and  solid  were  sold  off, 
it  was  necessary  to  repair,  restore,  and  strengthen  those 
articles  which  were  only  discovered  in  fragments. 

While  the  introduction  of  machinery  had  had  much 
to  do  with  changing  the  character  and  working  methods 
of  the  cabinet  maker,  it  has  proved  a  great  boon  to 
humanity  generally,  and  has  given  to  the  masses,  a  class 
of  furniture  they  never  could  have  enjoyed  but  for  the 
cheaper  productions  by  the  aid  of  power,  and  machines, 
and  in  these  remarks,  I  do  not  wish  to  give  the  impres- 
sion that  machine  made  furniture  is  not  good,  or  that 
it  has  not  a  beauty  of  its  own,  or  that  a  majority  of  the 
designs  are  not  graceful  and  well  adapted  to  the  days 
in  which  it  was  executed.  In  fact,  I  am  of  the  belief 
that  woodworking  machinery  has  proved  a  blessing  to 
both  producer  and  user  of  cabinet  work,  while  at  the 
same  time  it  has  proved  almost  fatal  to  the  distinctive 
and  individual  beauty  of  artistic  handmade  furniture. 

The  object  of  the  writer  of  this  book,  is  to  aid  the 
young  cabinet-maker — and  the  old  one  too — in  obtain- 
ing a  knowledge  of  the  art  from  A  to  Z,  and  t£  enable 
him  to  take  his  material  from  the  rough,  and  work  it 
up  until  it  reaches  a  finished  state  ready  to  take  the 
place  for  which  it  was  intended.  I  also  purpose  repro- 
ducing a  number  of  designs  of,  what  was  generally 
considered  to  be  some  of  the  finest  examples  of  furni- 
ture, from  which  the  young  workman  and  designer, 
may  absorb  inspiration  and  give  to  his  work  a  charm 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  15 

and  character  to  such  work  as  he  may  undertake  to 
execute,  that  can  never  be  conveyed  to  articles  made 
by  the  machine. 

It  may  be  said,  and  with  justice,  that  there  is  little 
or  no  demand  for  handmade  art  furniture,  but  I  am 
persuaded  this  condition  is  occasioned  because  of  the 
little  of  it  there  is  in  the  market,  and  the  very  high 
prices  demanded  for  it  by  the  owners.  These  high 
prices  are  placed  on  the  articles,  not  by  the  maker,  de- 
signer or  workman,  but  by  dealers,  and  the  prices  are 
often  from  four  to  five  times  the  actual  cost  of  the 
original  work,  and  are  only  bought  by  rich  people, 
whereas,  if  the  prices  were  normal,  the  middle  classes, 
whose  taste  is  equal — and  often  superior — to  that  of 
the  very  rich,  would  indulge  in  handmade  work  to  a 
very  much  larger  extent  than  they  now  do. 

The  bright  sharp  workman,  of  whom  there  are  hun- 
dreds in  our  cabinet  factories,  who  have  been  trained 
from  the  lumber  yards  to  the  running  of  the  most  deli- 
cate machinery  in  the  shop,  who  by  a  little  study,  and 
a  little  practical  work,  may  soon  become  able  to  make 
and  finish  furniture — by  hand — of  the  finest  sort,  furni- 
ture too,  that  will  find  a  ready  market  if  the  maker 
does  his  best.  Many  fine  pieces  of  furniture  have  been 
made  by  advanced  students  after  work-hours  or  dur- 
ing holidays.  I  have  in  mind  at  this  writing,  a  splendid 
oak  side-board,  that  was  made  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  by 
a  young  man  who  was  serving  some  years  in  a  furniture 


16  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

shop,  in  that  city,  as  an  apprentice.  The  work  was  all 
done  by  hand,  and  in  a  shed  in  the  rear  of  the  house, 
polishing  and  all.  The  sideboard  was  intended  for  his 
father,  but  a  wealthy  neighbor  of  the  latter,  a  man  of 
taste,  seeing  the  work  before-  it  was  quite  completed, 
offered  to  buy  it,  and  thus,  when  finished  was  sold  for 
the  sum  of  $280.00.  The  materials,  including  mirrors, 
stained  and  leaded  glass,  hardware,  and  other  stuff, 
all  told,  cost  about  $55.00.  When  it  is  considered,  the 
work  was  done,  nearly  all  after  hours,  between  the 
fifteenth  of  October  and  the  end  of  April,  the  amount 
was  quite  a  comfortable  addition  to  the  young  man's 
slender  yearly  salary.  But  the  money  gained,  was 
but  a  fraction  of  the  benefit  he  derived,  as  the  ex- 
perience, and  the  knowledge  obtained  in  making  the 
furniture,  were  worth  to  him  many  times  the  money- 
he  received  for  it. 

Of  course,  I  do  not  think  every  apprentice,  or  even 
a  large  percentage  of  them,  could  make  such  pieces 
of  furniture,  or  find  purchasers  for  them  after  they 
were  made,  but  every  apprentice  or  student  could  make 
something,  that  would  be  useful  and  ornamental,  and 
have  a  cash  value,  besides  opening  a  way  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  a  broader  and  more  exact  artistic  taste. 

Taste  was  the  founder  of  all  our  styles  in  furniture 
from  the  prehistoric  log  stool  all  the  way  down  through 
the  Egyptian,  Babylonian,  Chinese,  Greek,  Roman, 
Medieval,  Byzantine,  French,  Gothic  and  the  more 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  17 

modern  styles  of  Chipendale,  Shereton,  Adams,  and 
our  colonial  styles,  and  it  is  essential  that  every  cabinet- 
maker who  aspires  to  know  his  business,  should  culti- 
vate taste,  make  himself  conversant  with  the  various 
styles,  and  be  able  at  a  glance  to  tell  to  what  style,  or 
on  what  lines  any  given  piece  of  furniture  is  intended 
to  represent. 

In  this  connection,  I  may  say,  it  is  proposed  to  lay 
before  my  readers  a  chapter  or  two  on  the  various 
styles  of  furniture,  with  illustrations,  explanations  and 
some  details.  It  is  also  intended  to  offer  some  instruc- 
tions for  performing  such  work  as  gilding,  staining, 
polishing,  and  finishing  the  work  complete. 

There  are  but  a  few  books  of  value,  on  the  art  of 
cabinet-making,  available  to  the  American  reader, 
though  in  French,  and  German,  and  even  in  Italian, 
there  are  quite  a  number,  but  most  of  their  renderings 
would  be  of  little  use  to  the  English  or  American  work- 
man, however,  I  will  try  and  cull  from  them,  whatever 
I  deem  suitable  to  these  pages.  The  cullings  from  these 
works  will  consist  mostly  of  illustrations,  representing 
some  of  the  best  works  of  French,  Italian,  and  German 
masters,  with  such  explanations  as  may  be  necessary. 
The  only  American  work,  of  a  real  practical  nature, 
that  I  have  any  knowledge  of  is,  first,  Cabinet-maker's 
Companion,  by  J.  Stokes,  published  by  Henry  Carey 
Baird,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1870.  This  is  an  excellent 
little  work  and  contains  quite  a  number  of  good  re- 


18  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

ceipts  on  dyeing,  staining,  and  other  useful  matter. 
Another  book,  a  still  more  modern  one  by  Alvan 
Crocker  Nye,  Ph.  B.  and  deals  nearly  altogether  with 
the  constructional  principle  of  cabinet-making,  but  it 
has  little  to  say  regarding  the  styles  or  historical  pecu- 
liarities of  furniture.  This  book  is  published  by  Wm. 
Comstock,  New  York,  and  is  dated  1900.  Some  other 
Manuals  are  very  good  in  their  way,  but  they  are 
written  chiefly  for  boys  who  have  had  little  or  no  ex- 
perience in  woodworking,  and  who  may  not  intend 
making  Cabinet-making  a  life  work,  are  suited  more 
for  amateur  workers  rather  than  for  those  intending 
to  follow  woodworking  for  a  living.  These  manuals 
however,  will  prove  useful  to  every  one  who  intends 
to  work  in  wood,  either  professionally  or  as  an  am- 
ateur. 

There  have  been  many  essays  on  the  art  of  furniture 
making,  in  our  journals  and  art  magazines,  but  these 
have  generally  been  of  an  academic  character,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  and  have  proved  but  of  little  service 
to  the  practical  workman. 

A  brief  history  of  furniture  and  its  growth,  may  not 
be  out  of  place,  though  I  do  not  purpose  going  into 
the  subject  at  great  length,  so  I  will  devote  one  illus- 
trated chapter  only  to  it. 


FURNITURE  HISTORY. 

The  first  well-known  reference  to  woodwork  is  to 
be  found  in  the  Book  of  Genesis  in  the  instructions 
given  to  Noah  to  make  an  Ark  of  "Gopher  Wood," 
to  make  a  window,  to  pitch  it  within  and  without  with 
pitch,  and  to  observe  definite  measurements.  From  the 
specific  directions  thus  handed  down  to  us  we  may 
gather  that  mankind  had  acquired  at  a  very  early 
period  of  the  World's  history  a  knowledge  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  wood,  and  the  use  of  the  various  tools. 

We  know  also,  from  the  various  bas-reliefs  and 
papyri  to  be  found  in  the  World's  museums,  how  ad- 
vanced were  the  Old  Egyptians  in  the  arts  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  that  the  manufacture  of  comfortable  and  even 
luxurious  furniture  was  well  known.  It  is  quite  evident 
the  Hebrews  must  have  had  the  best  of  workmen  for 
their  teachers  and  taskmasters  to  have  enabled  them 
to  acquire  sufficient  skill  and  experience  to  carry  out 
such  precise  instructions  as  were  given  for  the  build- 
ing of  the  ark,  and  the  erection  of  the  Tabernacle,  the 
latter  of  which  was  built  some  1500  years  before  Christ 
— as  to  the  kinds  of  wood,  measurements,  ornaments, 
fastenings  (loops  and  taches),  curtains  of  linen,  and 
coverings  of  dried  skins.  We  have  only  to  turn  for 

19 


20  '    THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

a  moment  to  the  25th  chapter  of  Exodus  to  be  con- 
vinced that  all  the  directions  there  mentioned  were 
given  to  a  people  who  had  considerable  experience  in 
the  methods  of  carrying  out  work,  which  must  have 
resulted  from  some  generations  of  cabinet-makers,  car- 
penters, joiners,  weavers,  dyers,  goldsmiths,  and  other 
craftsmen. 

A  thousand  years  before  Christ,  we  have  those  de- 
scriptions of  the  building  and  fitting  by  Solomon  of 
the  glorious  work  of  his  reign,  the  great  temple,  and 
of  his  own,  "the  King's  house,"  which  gathered  from 
different  countries  the  most  skilful  artificers  of  the  time, 
an  event  which  marks  an  era  of  advance  in  the  knowl- 
edge and  skill  of  those  who  were  thus  brought  together 
to  do  their  best  work  towards  carrying  out  the  grand 
scheme.  It  is  worth  while,  too,  when  we  are  referring 
to  Old  Testament  information  bearing  upon  the  sub- 
ject, to  notice  some  details  of  furniture  which  are  given, 
with  their  approximate  dates  as  generally  accepted, 
not  because  there  is  any  particular  importance  attached 
to  the  precise  chronology  of  the  events  concerned  but 
because,  speaking  generally,  they  form  landmarks  in 
the  history  of  furniture.  One  of  these  is  the  verse 
(2  Kings  chap.  Iv)  which  tells  us  the  contents  of  the 
"little  chamber  in  the  wall,"  when  Elisha  visited  the 
Shunamite,  about  B.  C.  895;  and  we  are  told  of  the 
preparations  for  the  reception  of  the  prophet:  "And 
let  us  set  for  him  there  a  bed  and  a  table  and  a  stool 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  21 

and  a  candlestick."  Another  incident  is  some  420  years 
later,  when,  in  the  allusion  to  the  grandeur  of  the 
Palace  of  Ahasuerus,  we  catch  a  glimpse  of  Eastern 
magnificence  in  the  description  of  the  drapery  which 
furnished  the  apartment:  "Where  were  white,  green, 
and  blue  hangings,  fastened  with  cords  of  fine  linen 
and  purple,  to  silver  rings  and  pillars  of  marble:  the 
beds  were  of  gold  and  silver,  upon  a  pavement  of  red 
and  blue  and  white  and  black  marble."  (Esther  i :  6). 

There  are,  unfortunately,  no  trustworthy  descriptions 
of  ancient  Hebrew  furniture.  The  illustrations  in 
Kitto's  Bible,  Mr.  Henry  Soltau's  "The  Tabernacle, 
The  Priesthood  and  the  Offerings,"  and  other  similar 
books,  are  apparently  drawn  from  imagination,  founded 
on  descriptions  in  the  Old  Testament.  In  these,  the 
"table  for  shew-bread"  is  generally  represented  as  hav- 
ing legs  partly  turned,  with  the  upper  portions  square, 
to  which  rings  were  attached  for  the  poles  by  which 
it  was  carried.  As  a  nomadic  people,  their  furniture 
would  be  but  primitive,  and  we  may  take  it  that  as  the 
Jews  and  Assyrians  came  from  the  same  stock,  and 
spoke  the  same  language,  such  ornamental  furniture 
as  there  was  would,  with  the  exception  of  the  repre- 
sentations of  figures  of  men  or  of  animals,  be  of  a 
similar  character.  At  least  this  is  what  Litchfield  says, 
and  he  is  no  mean  authority. 

Doubtless  prehistoric  men  made  use  of  stones,  logs, 
or  piled-up  sods,  for  seats,  and  for  spots  to  rest  their 


22  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

heads ;  the  use  of  stones  for  pillows  being  quite  common 
as  late  as  early  historic  times.  Be  this  as  it  may  how- 
ever, we  find,  the  Egyptians  had  chairs,  beds,  tables 
and  other  furniture,  some  of  which  was  highly  wrought 
and  ornamented,  at  least  4000  years  before  Christ,  as 
shown  by  the  monuments,  and  by  the  papyri  that  have 
come  down  to  us.  We  also  possess  some  fragments  of 
bronze  furniture  of  both  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  make. 

The  British  Museum  and  the  Louvre  contain  a  few 
Egyptian  chairs  or  seats  that  have  been  made  in  ebony 
and  ivory,  which  owe  their  preservation  to  the  lasting 
nature  of  the  material. 

Two  Egyptian  chairs  or  thrones  are  illustrated  at 
Figs,  i  and  2,  in  the  first  part  of  this  work.  At  Fig. 
3,  cabinet-makers  are  represented  as  occupied  in  chair 
making,  the  feet  and  legs  of  the  chairs  being  designed 
from  animals'  limbs,  and  the  stools  on  which  the  work- 
men are  sitting  are  blocks  of  wood  hollowed  out  at  the 
top.  The  Egyptian  couch  was  of  a  straight-lined  de- 
sign in  the  body  with  a  curved  head  like  an  ordinary 
sofa,  the  legs,  feet  and  other  salient  points  being  carved 
with  heads,  feet  and  tails  of  animals. 

Some  boxes  and  coffers  with  gable  tops  dovetailed 
together,  small  toilet  boxes  having  carved  or  painted 
decoration,  and  Mummy  cases  of  cedar-wood  having 
elaborate  hieroglyphic  decorations,  may  be  seen  in  the 
British  Museum  and  in  the  Louvre.  Chariot  and  horse 
furniture  are  well  represented  in  the  reliefs  and  wall 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


23 


paintings.  Egypt  was  famed  for  chariot  building,  and 
exported  them  in  trade  to  the  surrounding  nations. 
\Ye  read  that  King  Solomon  imported  his  war-chariots 
from  Egypt. 


Figure  1 


Figure  2 


If  examples  of  Egyptian  furniture  are  scarce,  the 
furniture  of  Assyria  is  practically  non-existent,  as  the 
climate  of  the  latter  country  was  not  so  dry  or  pre- 
servative as  that  of  Egypt,  so  that  all  examples  that 
have  not  been  wilfully  destroyed  have  long  ago  perished. 
Many  ornaments  of  bronze  and  of  ivory  decorations 
have  been  discovered  that  have  been  used  as  mountings 
to  feet,  ends  of  legs  of  seats,  chairs,  or  thrones.  The 


24  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

bas-reliefs  of  the  latter  enables  us  to  form  a  fairly  ac- 
curate judgment  of  the  nature  and  style  of  Assyrian 
furniture,  the  decoration  of  which  was  of  a  heavier  and 
coarser  character  than  that  of  the  more  elegant 
Egyptian  (Fig.  4  and  5).  Forms  and  parts  of  animals 


Figure  3 

were  used  by  the  Assyrians  and  nearly  all  Oriental 
nations  as  furniture  decorations.  The  human  figure 
was  also  used,  but  generally  in  the  representation  of 
slaves  or  conquered  peoples,  who  were  degraded  to  the 
position  of  bearing  the  weight  of  the  seat  or  throne  of 
the  monarch.  The  Egyptian  chairs  had  also  carved 
human  figures  as  captives  tied  under  the  seat. 

The  furniture  of  the  Hebrews  was  doubtless  of  the 
same  kind  as  the  Assyrian.  From  the  description  of 
King  Solomon's  throne  it  was  apparently  similar  to 
those  of  the  Assyrian  kings.  It  had  lions  for  the  arm 
supports,  and  had  six  lions  in  gold  and  ivory  on  the 
six  steps  on  either  side  of  the  throne. 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


25 


In  the  manufacture  of  the  furniture  of  the  nations 
of  antiquity  the  principal  materials  were — in  woods, 
ebony,  rosewood,  walnut,  pine,  teak,  and,  above  all, 
cedar-wood;  ivory,  gold,  silver,  bronze,  and  electrum 
were  also  much  used  for  inlays  and  for  solid  mountings. 

The  furniture  and  the 
chariots  of  the  Greeks  in 
their  early  period  were 
simply  copied  from  Egyp- 
tian and  Asiatic  sources, 
with  less  of  the  animal 
forms  and  more  of  plant 
forms  as  decorative  de- 
tails (Figs.  6,  7).  Folding- 
stools  and  chairs  were 
made  in  wood  and  in  metal 
and  the  backs  of  the  chairs 
were  upright,  or  nearly  so 
(Figs.  8,  9  and  10)  ;  couches  resembling  modern  sofas, 
elaborate  foot-stools,  and  arm-chairs  with  the  sphinxes 
for  the  arms  were  made  by  the  Greeks. 

In  the  British  Museum  are  some  small  models  of 
Greek  chairs  made  in  lead,  and  wooden  boxes  showing 
the  dovetail  construction. 

In  the  later  Greek  periods  the  furniture  was  inlaid 
with  ivory,  ebony,  gold,  and  silver.  Tripods  were  made 
of  bronze,  and  had  ornamented  legs  in  the  shapes  of 
the  limbs  of  lions,  leopards,  and  sphinxes.  The  Roman 
bronze  tripods  were  very  similar  to  the  Grecian  ones 


Figure  4 


26  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

in  design,  and  were  not  only  used  for  sacred  purposes 
in  the  temples,  but  also  to  support  braziers  for  heating 
purposes,  or  for  burning  perfumes  in  the  houses  of 
private  people  (Fig.  10). 

Hand-mirrors  and  cistae  were  made  in  great  quan- 
tities in  bronze  or  in  other  metal  alloys,  in  silver,  and 


Figure  6 


Figure  5 


sometimes  in  gold.  The  mirrors  were  polished  on  the 
face,  and  had  often  rich  designs  of  figure  subjects.  The 
Greek  cistae  were  cylindrical  metal  boxes  that  rested 
on  feet  designed  from  those  of  various  animals,  having 
a  lid  or  cover,  with  a  handle  or  knot  usually  of  figure 
design,  the  whole  surface  of  the  body  being  covered 
with  engraved  figure  compositions  and  ornamental 
borders.  They  were  probably  used  to  contain  jewelry 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


27 


and  trinkets.     Some  very  fine  specimens  of  these  hand- 
mirrors  and  cistae  may  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 


Figure  7 


The  furnishing  of  the  houses  of  the  Romans  was 
very  much  of  the  same  character  as  that  of  the  Greeks 


Figure  10 

and  Etruscans,  from  whom  the  Romans  inherited  all 
their  arts. 

The  interior  plan  and  aspects  of  the  Roman  houses 
were  such  as  those  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum. 
Tables  and  tripods  of  bronze  or  braziers  were  supported 


28  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

on  three  legs,  some  of  which  were  made  with  hinges 
for  folding  purposes  (Fig.  n),  and  others  were  of 
sphinx  and  animal  forms  of  a  rich  design  (Fig.  12). 
Lamp-stand  designs  were  quaint  and  elegant  and  were 


Figure  11  Figure  12 


made  in  bronze  (Fig.  13).  Candelabra  of  architectural 
design  were  carved  in  marble  and  were  from  six  to  ten 
feet  in  height  (Fig.  15). 

The  Romans  highly  prized  and  paid  good  sums  for 
tables  that  were  made  from  the  pollard  cross  grain  of 
different  hard  woods  in  which  the  knots  and  grain 
showed  to  advantage,  the  beauty  of  the  wood  being 
brought  out  by  hand-polishing  and  by  the  staining  it 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  29 

with  various  colored  dyes.  Bird's  eye  maple  and  the 
wood  of  the  cedrus  atlantica  were  much  prized.  The 
smaller  tables,  abaci,  rested  usually  on  one  foot — 
monopodium — and  larger  tables  had  three  or  four  legs, 


Figure  13 

which  had  ivory  claws  or  heads  of  animals  as  carved 
decoration  (Fig.  14).  Boxwood,  beech,  and  palm,  in- 
laid with  ivory,  ebony,  and  precious  metals,  were  used 
in  the  materials  of  chairs  and  couches.  The  latter  were 
often  made  in  bronze  (Figs.  15  and  16),  and  chairs  of 
state  were  carved  in  marble,  one  of  this  kind  being  in 
the  Louvre,  a  cast  of  which  is  now  in  the  Kensington 
Museum  (Fig.  17).  The  form  of  the  Roman  curule 
chair  was  like  the  letter  X,  and  was  so  called  because  it 


30  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

could  be  folded  and  carried  easily  in  the  curules  or 
chariots.  It  was  used  from  the  earliest  times  of  the 
Romans  down  to  modern  days  in  Italy,  and  was  often 
constructed  of  elephants'  tusks,  wood,  or  metal,  with 
ivory  feet.  The  curule  chairs  were  carried  about  for 
outdoor  use  and  for  the  theatre.  The  sella  or  bisellium, 


Figure  14 

to  seat  two  persons,  was  often  a  very  ornate  kind  of 
seat  with  turned  legs  similar  to  the  couches  (Fig.  18). 

In  the  houses  of  the  Romans  a  separate  room  or 
wardrobe  was  fitted  up  to  keep  the  dresses  and  cloths 
of  the  family ;  this  room  had  cupboards  with  doors  and 
shelves,  drawers,  and  lockers. 

Portable  coffers  and  chests  were  used,  in  which  they 
packed  their  cloths  and  valuables  when  carrying  them 
to  and  from  their  town  and  country  houses.  The 
Roman  furniture  and  wooden  construction  of  their 
houses  were  decorated  with  paintings  and  carvings  of 
animals'  heads,  limbs,  and  feet,  and  with  the  usual 
architectural  acanthus  foliage — veneering  of  woods  was 
an  art  in  which  the  Romans  were  skilled ;  both  large 
and  small  design  in  Tazsia  work  were  the  chief  decora- 
tions of  the  best  furniture. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


31 


The  representations  we  have  of  what  was  used  by 
the  Egyptians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans,  are  those 
only  of  the  most  finished  and  tasteful  specimens;  and, 
consequently,  materials  do  not  exist  for  the  formation 
of  a  chronological  series.  But  if  we  examine  such  as 
are  of  subsequent  date  in  Europe,  the  reply  will  be  found 
amply  to  repay  the  trouble. 


In  endeavoring  to  obtain  some  little  insight  into  the 
forms  and  materials  of  the  furniture  of  ancient  times, 
we  are  dependent  on  different  sources,  according  to  the 
country  under  consideration.  If  it  be  ancient  Rome  or 
Greece,  the  descriptions  by  the  classical  writers  and 
the  paintings  at  Pompeii  are  our  chief  authorities;  if 
ancient  Egypt,  the  paintings  on  the  walls  at  Thebes 
and  other  places;  if  in  China  or  India,  or  Asia  general- 
ly, the  specimens  still  existing,  for  the  Asiatics  are 
more  stationary  in  their  usages  than  the  inhabitants  of 
any  other  quarter  of  the  globe.  Footstools  seemed  to 
have  formed  part  of  the  furniture  of  a  sitting-room; 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET   MAKER 


they  were  made  both  solid  and  open  at  the  sides,  and 
were  covered  at  the  top  with  leather   or   interlaced 
string. 
The    distinction    between    a 

bed  and  a  couch  does  not  seem 

to     have     been    very     clearly 

marked.     They  had  couches  of 

wood  with  one  end  raised  and 

receding  in   a  graceful  curve, 

with  feet  fashioned  to  resemble 

those  of  some  wild  animal.     It 

is  supposed  that  those  couches 

had  a  rich  covering  by  day  and 

bedding  by  night.     The  use  of 

wooden  pillows  was  customary ; 

they  were  made  of  various  ma- 
terials, according  to   the  rank 

of  the  possessor,  and  had  a  sin- 
gular kind  of  cavity  in  which 

the  head  or  the  back  of  the  neck 

might  rest.     Wicker  bedsteads 

were  sometimes  made  of  palm- 
branches,  forming  a  light  kind 

of  grating  on  which  the  bed 

and  bedding  were  placed.    The 

tables    used    were    of    various 

Figure  16 

torms — round,  square  and  ob- 
long.   At  repasts  the  dining-table  was  generally  circu- 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  33 

lar,  and  supported  by  a  central  pillar,  which  was  often 
the  figure  of  a  man  as  a  captive.  Other  tables  had 
three  or  four  legs,  and  the  material  of  the  tables 
themselves,  though  generally  wood,  was  sometimes 
metal  or  stone. 

It  is  curious  to  remark  that  Egypt  exhibited,  three 
or  four  thousand  years  ago,  articles  of  furniture  bear- 
ing a  much  closer  resemblance  to  those  of  modern 
Europe  than  Egypt  does  at  the  present  day.  The  chairs 
of  the  early  times  might  in  many  cases  be  readily  mis- 
taken for  those  now  in  use  among  ourselves;  whereas 
the  divans  and  cushions  of  modern  Egypt,  on  which  the 
natives  indolently  recline,  belong  to  the  oriental  system 
of  furniture.  In  Cairo  no  chambers  are  furnished  as 
bed-rooms.  The  bed,  in  the  day-time,  is  rolled  up  and 
placed  on  one  side,  or  in  an  adjoining  closet,  which  is 
a  sleeping-place  in  the  winter.  In  summer  many  per- 
sons sleep  upon  the  house-tops.  The  furniture  of  a 
room  is  comprised  pretty  nearly  by  the  mat  or  carpet 
spread  upon  the  floor,  and  the  divans  or  cushioned 
couches.  For  meals  a  round  tray  is  brought  in  and 
placed  upon  a  low  stool,  and  the  company  sit  round 
it  on  the  ground.  There  is  no  fire-place,  the  room  being 
warmed  when  necessary  by  charcoal  burning  in  a 
chafing-dish. 

Passing  from  Egypt  to  China,  we  find,  in  treating 
of  the  furniture  of  a  room,  as  in  many  other  matters, 
how  singularly  isolated  the  Chinese  are  from  the  other 


34  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

nations  of  Asia,  and  how  much  more  closely  they  re- 
semble Europeans.  The  Chinese  are  the  only  Asiatic 
people  who  customarily  use 
chairs;  they  resemble  the 
solid  and  heavy  chairs  in 
fashion  during  the  early  part 
of  the  1 8th  century;  (see  il- 
lustration of  Chinese  chair). 
The  seat  of  the  chair  has  oft- 
en a  cushion,  and  the  back 
a  hanging  of  scarlet  silk  or 
woolen  embroidered  with 
silk.  In  the  forms  of  their 
Figure  17  furniture  the  Chinese  gen- 

erally avoid  straight  and  uniform  lines;  even  in  their 
doorways,  instead  of  a  regular  right-angled  opening, 
they  often  have  one  presenting  the  form  of  a  circle, 
or  an  oval,  or  a  leaf,  or  a  jar.  These  fanciful  door- 
ways, however,  are  only  used  when  there  are  no  doors., 
the  opening  being  covered  with  hanging  screens  of  silk 
or  cloth,  or  with  bamboo  blinds,  like  those  used  in 
India.  The  Chinese  beds  are  generally  simple  in  form, 
with  cotton  or  silk  curtains  in  winter,  and  a  fine  mos- 
quito-screen during  the  heat  of  summer;  the  bed  of  an 
individual  among  the  middle  classes  usually  consists 
of  two  or  three  boards  laid  upon  a  couple  of  narrow 
benches,  a  mat  to  lie  upon,  and  four  bamboo-sticks  to 
support  the  mosquito-curtains.  It  may  readily  be  sup- 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  35 

posed  that  in  the  original  country  of  porcelain  a  very 
usual  ornament  of  dwellings  consists  in  vases  and  jars 
of  that  material,  of  which  the  antiquity  is  valued  above 
every  other  quality.  This 
taste  has  led  to  the  manu- 
facture of  fictitious  an- 
tiques, not  only  in  porce- 
lain, but  in  bronze  and 
other  substances — points 
in  which  strangers  are 
often  very  egregiously 

taken  in  at  Canton.  The  shapes  of  their  tripods  and 
other  ancient  vessels,  real  or  imitated,  are  often  fan- 
tastical, and  not  unlike  similar  vestiges  in  Europe. 

The  furniture,  such  as  tables,  chairs,  beds,  and  the 
chariots  of  the  Byzantine  period,  was  like  the  archi- 
tecture in  having  something  of  the  classic  Roman  mix- 
ture with  some  Asiatic  Greek  forms  in  its  design. 
Scarcely  any  remains  of  such  are  now  in  existence, 
although  we  have  evidences  of  the  extreme  richness 
of  the  sumptuary  furniture  and  vessels  of  the  great 
houses  and  palaces  of  Constantinople,  for  owing  to  the 
decadence  and  destruction  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the 
provinces,  the  capital  of  the  East  became  enriched  by 
treasures  of  the  Roman  families,  who  naturally  fled  to 
Constantinople  for  protection  for  themselves  and  their 
valuable  effects. 

The  old  ivories  known  as  consular  diptychs  have 


36  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

different  varieties  of  seats,  chairs,  and  footstools,  on 
which  the  consuls  are  seated,  represented  in  the  carving. 
Many  originals  of  these  and  casts  from  others,  are  now 
in  the  Kensington  Museum,  London. 


Figure  19 

The  chair  of  St.  Maximian,  preserved  at  Ravenna, 
is  covered  with  ivory  carvings,  and  is  one  of  the  finest 
examples  of  Byzantine  work. 

Much  of  the  furniture  of  the  early  centuries  of  Chris- 
tian art  is  represented  in  the  Byzantine  illuminated 
manuscripts.  Beds  and  couches  kept  the  old  Roman 
forms  with  the  turned  legs.  Chariots  must  have  been 
used  very  much,  as  the  old  game  of  chariot  racing  was 
kept  up  by  the  Byzantines.  The  Iconoclasts  of  the 
Eastern  Empire  under  Leo  the  Isaurian  (A.  D.  726) — 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


37 


whose   injurious   rule  lasted   about  one  hundred  and 
twenty  years — were  responsible  for  much  destruction 


Figure  20 


of  sumptuary  furniture,  as  well  as  for  other  productions 
of  an  artistic  nature,  but  at  the  same  time  they  were 
the  indirect  means  of  causing  a  new  development  in  art 
in  the  western  parts  of  Europe,  and  more  particularly  in 


38  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

the  Rhenish  Provinces,  by  driving  the  Byzantine  artists 
and  craftsmen  to  these  places,  where  they  were  wel- 
comed by  Charlemagne,  and  by  his  powerful  nobles  and 
churchmen.  In  the  course  of  time  they  succeeded  in 
founding  the  school  of  art  known  as  Rhenish-Byzan- 
tine. The  finest  illustrations  of  this  art  are  seen  in  the 
magnificent  enamelled  reliquaries  or  shrines.  The  gilt- 
bronze  chair  of  Dagobert  is  of  Romanesque  design,  and 
is  one  of  the  earliest  pieces  of  furniture  of  the  Middle 
Ages  (see  Fig.  19).  Another  mediaeval  chair  or 
throne  is  high  seated,  and  exceedingly  rich  in  design 
(Fig.  20).  It  is  of  Scandinavian  origin,  and  is  a  good 
example  of  the  Romanesque  style  of  Northern  Europe. 
Many  forms  of  the  Romanesque  are  seen  in  the  furni- 
ture and  carving  of  the  Gothic  style  that  immediately 
succeeded  the  former. 

During  the  Anglo-Saxon  period  in  England  the  or- 
dinary houses  usually  consisted  of  one  room.  Some- 
times a  shed-like  structure  was  erected  against  the  wall 
of  the  room  to  contain  the  bed  of  the  mistress  of  the 
house,  and  as  a  rule  the  inmates  slept  on  a  large  table 
placed  in  the  center  of  the  room,  or  on  benches  on  which 
bags  of  straw  were  placed.  Seats  without  backs,  or 
stools,  long  settles  or  benches  with  backs  and  carved 
ends  or  arms,  were  the  chief  articles  in  furniture. 

After  the  Norman  Conquest  domestic  improvements 
were  multiplied,  more  rooms  were  added  to  the  houses, 
such  as  the  solar  or  upper  room,  and  the  parlor  or 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


39 


talking  room,  and  some  of  the  rooms  had  fireplaces,  but 
not  chimneys.  The  principal  room  was  the  hall  or 
assembly-room,  which  had  a  fireplace  in  the  center,  the 
smoke  escaping  through  the  lantern  light  in  the  roof. 
In  the  Norman  times  the  principal  additions  to  the 
furniture  of  English  manor-houses  and  castles  were  the 
cupboard,  presses  or  armoi'res,  and  chests.  These  pieces 


Figure  21 


Figure  22 


of  furniture  were  introduced  from  France.  Sometimes 
the  portable  presses  and  the  chests  were  painted  with 
tempera  decorations,  and  were  bound  with  wrought- 
iron  clasps  and  hinges,  which  were  just  beginning  to 
come  into  use. 

The  bed-clothes  and  personal  clothing  of  the  nobles 
and  rich  landowners  began  to  assume  a  rich  character, 
and  were  often  embroidered. 

Tapestry  and  painted  cloth  hangings  were  imported ; 
also  pottery  of  an  ornamental  description  was  not  only 
imported,  but  made  in  England  at  this  time.  All  this 


40  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

applies  to  the  homes  of  the  rich  only,  for  the  poorer 
classes  remained  for  a  long  period  in  a  very  primitive 
condition  as  regards  their  style  of  houses  and  their 
furniture. 

The  construction  of  furniture  and  the  panelling  of 
chests  began  to  exhibit  some  workmanlike  appearances 
of  good  carpentry.  Panels  were 
placed  in  framework  that  was  mor- 
tised and  fastened  with  wooden 
pegs,  which  became  the  universal 
method  of  panelling  throughout  the 
Gothic  period.  Room  paneling 
came  into  use  in  England  in  the 
early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
Figure  23  when  pine  timber  was  used  at  first 

for  this  work,  but  was  displaced  later  by  the  more  sub- 
stantial oak.  This  oak  panelling  during  the  Gothic 
periods  was  often  carved  with  elaborate  tracery  of  an 
architectural  character  (Figs.  21,  22},  and  a  common 
design  was  a  carved  imitation  of  a  carefully  folded 
textile,  known  as  the  "linen  panel"  (Fig.  23). 

Chests  were  used  as  tables,  and  the  tops  had  inlaid 
checkers  to  be  used  as  chessboards.  They  were  also 
-used  as  sideboards  on  which  to  place  dishes  of  food, 
the  dining-table  being  a  board  which  was  placed  on 
trestles,  that  could  be  removed  and  packed  away  when 
not  required  (Figs.  24,  25).  A  crossed-legged  chair 
and  a  three-legged  stool  is  shown  at  Fig.  27,  which 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  41 

were  common  shapes  in  the  fourteenth  century.     The 
illustration,  Fig.  26,  is  that  of  a  bedroom  of  the  same 


Figure  24 


period,  and  is  taken  from  an  English  manuscript  of  the 
date  of  1400.    For  these  illustrations,  and  many  others 


Figure  25 


on  the  subject  of  furniture,  we  are  indebted  to  the  work 
of  Mr.  J.  H.  Pollen  on  "Furniture  and  Woodwork." 


42 


THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


The  bed  in  the  latter  illustration  has  a  flat  canopy,  or 
tester,  with  embroidered  hangings.  The  walls  of  the 
room  are  panelled,  and  the  floor  is  in  checkered  par- 


Figure  26 

quetry.  There  is  a  curious  seat  that  is  partly  an  open 
press,  with  pottery,  and  metal  vases  placed  as  decora- 
tion on  the  top. 

Chests,  trunks,  or  bahuts,  were  at  this  period,  and 
in  the  time  of  the  Normans,  the  most  important  articles 
in  furniture;  they  were  often  made  with  inlaid  wood 
decorations,  and  had  strapwork  of  iron  and  ornate 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


43 


hinges.  They  were  the  usual  repositories  of  the  house- 
hold valuables,  money,  and  other  treasures,  and  were 
carried  on  horses  or  mules  when  the  family  moved 
about  from  place  to  place.  By  degrees  the  chest,  with 
the  addition  of  a  back  and  arms,  became  the  settles 
or  principal  seats  in  the  living-room,  and  the  back  de- 
veloped with  an  added  hood  or  projecting  covering  into 


Figure  27 

the  dais,  or  throne-like  seat,  that  was  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  chief  room — the  place  of  honor. 

Another  and  later  development  of  the  chest  was  to 
raise  it  on  legs,  and  to  add  a  back  arrangement  to  it, 
with  shelves  for  the  display  of  household  plate,  to 
which  was  given  the  name  of  dressoir,  or  dresser,  the 
latter  in  time  developing  into  the  modern  sideboard. 

Chests  were  also  important  articles  of  church  furni- 
ture, in  which  the  sacred  vessels,  treasures,  books,  and 
priests'  garments  could  be  locked  up,  and  a  particular 


44 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABIXET    MAKER 


form  of  chest  kept  in  church  vestries  was  the  cope  chest, 
which  took  the  semicircular  shape  of  the  copes  when 
laid  out  flat  in  these  chests.  Examples  of  these  chests 
are  still  to  be  seen  in  some  of  the  larger  cathedrals. 

The  coronation  chair  (Fig.  28)  gives  a  good  idea 
of  a  state  chair  of  the  early  Gothic  period  in  England. 

Carriages  of  the  fourteenth 
century  were  used  for  the 
conveyance  of  women  and 
children,  but  were  not  very 
common.  They  were  long- 
shaped  covered  vehicles  on 
four  wheels,  with  or  without 
paneled  sides,  and  were  paint- 
ed and  decorated  (Figs.  29, 
30).  Carts  for  carrying  and 
for  agricultural  purposes 
were  used  in  the  Anglo-Sax- 
on and  Norman  periods  in 
England,  and  in  France  at 
the  same  dates;  these  were 

two-wheeled  vehicles,  each  being  usually  of  one  solid 
piece  of  wood. 

The  Saracens  were  very  ingenious  in  the  using  of 
wood,  as  in  carpentry,  carving,  and  turning  in  the  lathe. 
Their  ingenuity  and  skill  in  carpentry  and  turning  is 
seen  in  the  Meshrebiya  work  and  lattice,  and  in  the 
carvings  of  the  pulpit  and  door  panels. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


45 


Regarding  the  furniture  of  the  domestic  dwellings  of 
the  Saracens,  whether  of  Egypt,  Arabia,  or  elsewhere, 
there  was  very  little  of  a  movable  nature  except  the 
small  tables  and  reading-desks.  The  tables  of  Saracenic 
design  are  usually  small  and  of  a  greater  height  than 
width  (Fig.  31).  These  tables  or  kursys  are  sometimes 
panelled  with  turned,  latticed,  or  carved  decoration, 
having  stalactites  under  the  top,  as  in  the  illustration, 


Figure  29 

or  in  the  kursys  of  a  lighter  construction  are  generally 
inlaid  with  ivory,  ebony,  and  mother-of-pearl.  Some 
of  the  richest  variety  are  hexagonal  in  shape,  are  inlaid 
with  brass  and  silver  filigree  ornamentation,  and  are 
of  splendid  workmanship.  The  next  important  article 
in  movable  furniture  is  the  Saracen  reading-desk,  which 
is  made  in  the  form  of  a  camp-stool,  with  cross  legs. 
It  is  usually  inlaid  and  decorated  like  the  tables. 

The  divans  are  platforms  raised  slightly  from  the 
ground,  and  covered  with  cushions  on  the  seats  and 
backs.  The  carved  cupboards  or  shelves  on  brackets 


4fi 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


placed  behind  and  above  the  divans,  on  which  vases 
and  trays  are  kept  for  ornament  or  when  not  in  use, 
complete  the  usual  furniture  of  the  Saracenic  living- 
room.  Seats  or  chairs  or  lattice- work  (dikkas),  on 


Figure  30 

which  the  doorkeeper  sits,  are  usually  found  in  en- 
trance-halls, and  if  we  add  the  elaborate  metal  and 
colored-glass  lamps,  the  vases,  the  large  metal  salvers 
or  trays,  and  the  rugs  and  carpets,  the  furniture  of  a 
Saracenic  house  is  complete. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


47 


Figure  31 


ITALIAN  AND  OTHER  FURNITURE  OF  THE 
RENAISSANCE. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  and  during 
the  whole  of  the  century  the  furniture  of  Europe  gen- 
erally was  designed  more  or  less  on  Gothic  lines,  but 
gradually  the  new  forms  that  were  now  rapidly  de- 
veloping in  the  architecture  of  the  Renaissance,  but  in 
a  slower  measure,  began  to  assert  themselves  in  furni- 
ture designs.  Consequently,  we  find  in  many  articles, 
such  as  armoires  or  presses,  and  cabinets,  a  mixture  of 
style  in  the  design — as,  for  instance,  the  upper  panels 
would  be  in  the  Mediaeval,  and  the  lower  ones  in  the 
Renaissance  style,  or  the  general  construction  would  be 
Gothic,  and  the  details  and  decoration  would  be  Italian. 

This  was  more  often  the  case  in  the  furniture  and 
other  art  in  Germany,  where  the  Renaissance  was 
tardily  welcomed. 

Styles  of  design  in  furniture  overlap  each  other  so 
much,  especially  in  the  Renaissance  period,  that  it  be- 
came very  difficult  to  assign  a  correct  date  to  many 
pieces  of  important  work.  Gothic  designs  continued  to 
be  used  during  the  sixteenth  century,  although  the 
Renaissance  had  been  developing  for  a  hundred  years 

48 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  49 

earlier.  The  most  authentic  means  of  fixing  the  date 
is  when  certain  work  can  be  proved  to  have  come  from 
the  hand  of  a  particular  artist,  or  when  there  is  a  record 
of  its  having  been  made  for  a  king  or  some  great 
person,  for  the  style  is  not  always  a  sure  proof  of  the 
correct  date. 

In  the  "Quattrocento"  period  (1400-1500),  or 
fifteenth  century,  Italian  furniture  made  for  churches, 
palaces,  or  private  houses,  was  usually  decorated  with 
paintings,  sometimes  on  a  gilt  ground,  which  was  pre- 
pared in  a  gesso  material  before  the  gold  was  applied, 
some  parts  of  which  had  relief  ornamentation. 

Reliquaries,  altar-fronts,  panels  or  cabinets,  chests, 
and  marriage  coffers  were  decorated  in  this  way. 

The  work  known  as  "tarsia,"  or  certosina  work,  was 
made  in  great  perfection  about  this  time  in  Italy.  It  is 
inlaid  work  of  a  geometric  character  in  design,  or  is 
composed  of  floral  ornament,  and  sometimes  consists 
of  representations  of  landscapes  and  buildings.  This 
kind  of  inlay  derived  from  Persian  sources,  was  de- 
veloped chiefly  by  the  Venetians,  and  was  used  mostly 
by  them  in  the  decoration  of  their  stalls,  tables,  chairs, 
cabinets,  &c.  Ebony,  ivory,  and  metals  were  also  em- 
ployed in  the  Italian  inlays  of  this  period. 

The  Italian  cassoni,  or  marriage  coffers,  were  the 
most  ornate  and  most  imposing  articles  of  furniture  of 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  They  were  placed 
in  the  long  halls  and  corridors  of  the  palaces  and  great 


50 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


houses,  and  were  usually  given  as  presents  to  newly 
married  couples.  They  were  generally  used  as  the  re- 
ceptacle for  the  bride's  trousseau  and  other  treasures. 
In  the  latter  century  they  were  carved  in  walnut  with 
sculptural  mythological  subjects,  and  had  endings  or 
corners  of  half-figures  and  half-foliage,  as  caryatids, 


Figure  32 

with  feet  designed  from  the  claws  of  animals  to  raise 
them  from  the  ground  (Fig.  32).  The  carving  was 
relieved  by  gilding  in  parts,  and  sometimes  the  whole 
of  it  was  gilt 

Other  examples  of  an  earlier  date  were  covered  with 
a  finely  modelled  decoration  of  gesso  work,  and  gilded, 
and  in  other  cases  the  large  panels  in  the  front  were 
painted  with  figure  subjects  in  brilliant  colors  and 
heightened  with  gold. 

A  less  costly  kind  of  marriage  coffer  was  made  in 
cypress- wood,  and  fitted  up  in  the  inside  with  drawers, 
having  the  decoration  on  the  surface  engraved  or  etched 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  33 


Figure  34 


52  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

in  brown  lines,  with  the  ground  slightly  recessed  and 
punched  or  stamped  with  a  fine  ornamentation. 

In  the  Kensington  Museum  there  is  an  extensive 
collection  of  Italian  cassoni  embracing  all  the  above 
varieties.  Chairs  carved  and  gilt  of  the  same  style  and 
period  as  the  coffers  were  usually  placed  between  the 
rows  of  the  latter  in  the  halls  of  the  Italian  palaces 
(Fig.  33).  These  chairs  had  their  backs  and  legs  rich- 
ly carved,  each  part  being  made  out  of  a  single  slab 
of  wood. 

The  pair  of  bellows  (Fig.  34)  is  a  further  illustra- 
tion of  the  design  and  excellence  of  workmanship  as 
shown  in  the  work  of  the  wpod  carvers  of  Italy  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  or  "Cinquecento"  period. 

Another  fine  specimen  of  wood  carving  is  the  Italian 
stool  (Fig.  35)  of  the  same  date,  which  is  remarkable 
for  its  delicacy  of  treatment. 

Another  form  of  chair  of  a  rectangular  character, 
with  or  without  arms,  having  an  embossed  leather  or 
velvet  covering  on  the  back  and  seat,  with  turned  and 
carved  legs  and  rails,  was  made  in  Italy  about  this  time 
(Fig.  36)  ;  it  was  much  used  subsequently  in  Spain, 
France,  and  in  England,  and  has  continued  to  be  in 
favor  down  to  the  present  day. 

Cabinets  were  made  in  Italy  and  in  France  in  which 
slabs  of  beautifully  colored  and  veined  marbles  and 
rare  stones  were  inserted  as  panels  in  various  shapes, 
to  which  the  name  of  "pietradura"  work  was  given. 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  53 

In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  painted 
plaques  of  porcelain  took  the  place  of  these  marbles. 


Figure  35 

In  England,  France,  Spain,  and  Germany,  the  great 
houses,  both  private  and  religious,  and  the  king's 
palaces  were  elaborately  furnished,  and  kept  in  a  state 
of  great  splendor. 


54 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  36 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  55 

Churches  were  also  furnished  with  elaborate  stalls, 
pulpits,  and  rich  utensils,  but  in  the  latter  the  style  of 
the  designs  was  still  Mediaeval. 

In  the  reigns  of  Henry  VII.  and  Henry  VIII.  in 
England  the  style  gradually  altered  to  the  Italian  forms 
of  the  Renaissance,  and  great  quantities  of  Italian, 
Flemish,  and  French  furniture  were  largely  imported. 
Jean  de  Mabuse  and  Torrigiano  were  employed  as 
architects  and  sculptors  by  Henry  VII.,  and  Holbein 
and  some  Italian  artists  designed  furniture  and  gold- 
smith's work  for  Henry  VIII. 

In  France,  during  the  reigns  of  Francois  I.,  Catherine 
de  Medici,  and  Henry  II.,  a  great  activity  took  place 
in  architecture  and  in  all  the  industrial  arts,  in  which 
that  country  was  not  only  imitated,  but  sought  to  excel, 
the  work  of  the  Italian  schools. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  French  kings  and 
Medicean  princesses  in  the  sixteenth  century  had  in- 
vited from  Italy  Cellini,  Primaticcio,  II  Rosso,  Serlio, 
and  others,  who  succeeded  in  founding  the  style  of 
the  Renaissance  in  France,  and  about  the  same  time 
many  French  artists  journeyed  to  Italy  to  acquire  the 
newer  style  which  had  been  evolved  from  the  study  of 
the  old  classic  Temains  of  that  country.  Among  the 
names  of  the  principal  French  artists,  sculptors,  and 
carvers  of  this  period  are  those  -  of  Jean  Goujon, 
Nicholas  Bachelier  of  Toulouse,  Jean  Cousin,  Germain 
Pilon,  Philibert  de  L'Orme,  Du  Cerceau,  who  published 


56  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  37 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


57 


designs  for  all  kinds  of  decorations  and  carvings,  and 
Hugues  Satnbin  of  Dijon.     Most  of  these  men  were 

architects  and  also 
designers  of  the 
heavy  and  rich  fur- 
niture that  was 
characteristic  of  the 
French  Renais- 
sance. Some  of 
these  artists  and 
their  works  have 
been  noticed  in  the 
chapters  on  Renais- 
sance architecture 
and  metal  work. 
The  cabinet  (Fig. 
37)  is  a  good  ex- 
ample of  the  archi- 
tecturic  style  of 
French  furniture  of 
the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. French  wood 
carving  is  distin- 
guished from  the 


Figure  38 

Italian  of  this  period  by  the  great  use  of  the  cartouche 
and  strap- work  (Fig.  38),  which  was  so  characteristic 
of  the  Henri-Deux  style. 


58  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

When  the  Renaissance  had  taken  a  firm  root  in  Ger- 
many, the  designers  and  carvers  of  altar-pieces  and  of 
furniture  generally  proved  themselves  thorough  masters 
of  the  style,  and  were  especially  skilful  in  the  carving 
of  wood,  both  on  a  gigantic  and  on  a  minute  scale. 
Whole  fronts  of  houses  were  elaborately  carved  in  de- 
signs consisting  of  figure  work,  animals,  ornament, 
and  grotesques  of  a  quaint  and  humorous  description, 
while  exceedingly  minute  works  of  figure  subjects  and 
animals  were  carved  in  box  and  other  woods  with  a 
delicacy  and  quaintness  often  excelling  the  ivory  carv- 
ings of  the  Japanese.  Escritoires,  buffets,  cabinets, 
and  other  furniture,  were  made  and  exported  from 
Germany  into  Spain  and  other  countries. 

Flemish  and  English  furniture  and  carving  were 
pretty  much  alike  in  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth — the  Tudor 
period  of  English  art — and  of  James  I.,  the  Stuart  of 
Jacobean.  The  pieces  of  carved  furniture,  both  Flemish 
and  English,  were  very  solid  and  heavy  both  in  the 
design  and  thickness  of  material,  which  was  generally 
of  oak  or  chestnut.  So  much  Flemish  furniture  was 
imported  into  England  at  this  time,  and  the  English- 
made  work,  being  so  close  in  resemblance  to  the  former, 
that  a  great  difficulty  is  experienced  in  classifying  ex- 
amples of  this  period.  The  table,  Fig.  39,  and  the  so- 
called  "Great  Bed  of  Ware,"  are  examples  of  the 
furniture  of  the  Elizabethan  period  (Fig.  40). 

In  Spain  the  Italian  style  in  furniture  was  intro- 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


59 


duced  in  the  first  instance  by  the  great  importations 
from  Italy  and  Germany,  but  under  such  excellent  na- 
tive carvers  and  designers  as  Felipe  de  Borgona  (six- 


Figure  39 


teenth  century),  and  Berruguete  (1480-1561),  the 
style  of  the  Renaissance  soon  spread  from  Toledo  to 
Seville  and  Valladolid,  where  great  quantities  of  carved 
and  inlaid  work  and  elaborate  altar-pieces  were  ex- 
ecuted during  the  prosperous  Spanish  period  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

During  the  same  century  Venice  and  Florence  were 
famed  for  their  marquetry — inlaid  work  of  ivory  and 
metal — in  cypress,  walnut,  and  other  woods,  which  art 


60  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

had  been  imported  from  Persia  and  India  by  the 
Venetians,  and  which  spread  rapidly  through  Europe 
until  the  furniture  made  with  marquetry  decoration  by 
degrees  supplanted  the  heavier  classical  architectural 
designs. 


Figure  40 

Before  leaving  the  Italian  sixteenth-century  work  we 
must  notice  the  mirrors,  with  their  elaborately  carved 
frames  of  Venetian  design  and  manufacture.  In  this 
century  Venice  was  renowned  for  the  making  of  glass, 
for  which  it  is  still  famous,  and  certain  privileges  were 
granted  by  the  State  exclusively  to  Venetian  manu- 
facturers of  looking-glasses.  Two  Murano  glass 
makers  named  Andrea  and  Dominico,  who  were  the 
inventors,  were  granted  in  the  year  1507  the  sole 
privilege  of  making  "mirrors  of  crystal  glass"  for  a 
term  of  twenty  years.  Previous  to  this  time  the  mirrors 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  61 

were  made  of  various  polished  metals.  The  frames  of 
the  Venetian  mirrors  were  often  elaborately  carved 
(Fig.  41),  some  of  them  being  made  in  designs  that 
were  strictly  architectural  in  character,  representing  a 
door,  or  window  frame,  with  pilasters  frieze,  and  cor- 
nice and  sill  or  plinth.  These  carved  frames  were  often 
part  or  wholly  gilt,  and  were  exported  in  considerable 
quantities.  Pictures  were  framed  in  a  similar  way  to 
the  mirrors,  and  carved  and  gilt  frames  were  soon  used 
all  over  Europe  as  picture  frames.  Later  on  gilt  furni- 
ture of  all  kinds  was  made  in  Venice  and  was  in  great 
favor  in  the  other  countries  of  the  Continent. 

The  manufacture  of  marquetry  furniture  by  the 
Dutch  in  the  seventeenth  century  has  been  mentioned 
as  having  helped  in  a  great  measure  to  change  the  style 
of  furniture  design  from  its  former  architectural  char- 
acter to  a  greater  simplicity  of  construction.  Large 
panel  surfaces  were  used  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
to  greater  advantage  the  rich  and  bright  colors  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  hard  woods  used  in  the  marquetry. 
Both  natural  and  stained  varieties  of  various  wood 
were  arranged  in  the  designs  in  juxta-position,  and  a 
free  and  picturesque  kind  of  ornamental  foliage  was 
employed  mixed  with  large  tulips,  roses,  and  birds 
in  the  Dutch  marquetry  decoration.  Other  materials 
such  as  ivory,  ebony,  and  mother-of-pearl,  were  also 
used  as  inlays.  In  France  a  similar  kind  of  marquetry 


62 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


L'ART   NOUVEAU 


was  developed,  but  the  design  con- 
sisted more  of  figure  subjects  and 
imitations  of  ruins  in  landscapes.  A 
complete  change  in  the  design  of  the 
furniture  in  the  latter  country  was 
also  effected  by  the  same  desire  to 
get  large  surface  on  which  the  inlaid 
work  could  be  seen  to  great  ad- 
vantage, and  the  spaces  were  not 
divided  by  architectural  mouldings, 
and  the  pilasters,  as  they  had  been  in 
the  preceding  earlier  work. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  dur- 
ing the  earlier  half  of  the  seventeenth,  the  sumptuous 
furniture,  the  beds,  and  general  furnishing  of  the  better 
class  of  houses  and  palaces  in  France  and  other  Euro- 
pean countries,  were  characterized  by  the  use  of  costly 
silk  brocades,  tissues,  and  embroidered  coverings  and 
hangings. 

By  thus  seeking  to  give  the  furniture  an  appearance 
of  the  richest  possible  kind,  such  articles  as  chairs, 
couches,  and  beds  lost  in  a  corresponding  degree  their 
elegance  and  former  constructive  beauty.  Under  their 
gorgeous  Italian  and  Oriental  velvet  coverings,  their 
framed  construction  ceased  to  be  visible.  The  above 
pieces  of  furniture  still  retained  their  sumptuous  up- 
holstery during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  but  the  tables, 
armoires,  cabinets,  book-cases,  pedestals,  clock-stands 


THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  63 

and  cases,  came  under  the  influence  of  the  architecture 
of  the  period,  when  the  king's  chief  minister,  Colbert, 
selected  the  best  architects  and  cabinet-makers  of  the 
day  to  design  the  furniture  for  the  palaces  of  the 
Tuileries,  the  Louvre,  and  Fontainebleau. 

The  greatest  name  connected  with  the  design  and 
manufacture  of  the  magnificent  furniture  of  the  Louis- 


An  Old  Italian  Table 

Quatorze  period  is  that  of  Andre-Charles  Boulle,  whose 
work  is  known  under  his  name  as  "Boulle."  This  cele- 
brated furniture  is  an  elaborate  kind  of  marquetry  of 
which  the  materials  are  rare  woods,  ebony,  tortoise- 
shell,  brass,  mother-of-pearl,  and  white  metal  or  tin. 
The  mountings,  mouldings,  and  other  salient  points  are 
made  in  brass  beautifully  chased  and  finished,  some  of 
the  mouldings  being  in  the  forms  of  masks,  foliages, 
cartouches,  and  animals'  heads  and  feet  as  termination. 
Andre-Charles  Boulle  was  born  in  Paris  in  the  year 


64  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

1642.  His  father,  Pierre  Boulle  was  also  a  distin- 
guished ebeniste,  or  cabinet-maker,  but  his  more 
eminent  son  possessed  the  artistic  gift  in  a  much  higher 
degree.  In  addition  to  making  his  special  marquetry 
from  his  own  designs  Boulle  also  executed  a  good  deal 
of  his  best  works  from  the  design  of  Jean  Berain  ( 1636- 
1711),  his  chief  collaborates.  Berain's  designs  were 
more  Italian  in  style,  more  symmetrical  in  the  com- 
position of  the  ornament,  and  more  correct  from  an 
architectural  point  of  view,  than  those  attributed  to 
Boulle  himself,  whose  designs  had  much  of  the  loose- 
ness and  freedom  of  the  prevalent  Louis  Quatorze. 

At  the  death  of  Jean  Mace,  the  king's  ebeniste,  in 
1672,  who  had  formerly  lived  in  the  royal  galleries  of 
the  Louvre,  the  logement  and  office  of  ebeniste  to  the 
king  had  become  vacant,  and  Boulle  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  Colbert,  minister  to  Louis  XIV.,  was 
appointed  as  the  successor  of  Mace,  and  was  installed 
in  his  rooms  in  the  Louvre  in  the  year  1673.  He  had 
previously  executed  some  important  work  for  the  king, 
and  was  known  as  the  ablest  ebeniste  at  that  time  in 
Paris. 

The  origin  of  the  Boulle  marquetry  can  be  traced  to 
the  Indian,  Persian,  and  Damascus  encrusted  inlays 
in  ivory,  ebony,  and  metal,  that  found  their  way  to 
Venice,  Portugal,  Spain,  and  France  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  These  works  consisted  chiefly  of  caskets,  coffers, 
and  small  pieces  of  furniture  In  the  inventories  of 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  65 


\7~~ 

Figure  41 


66  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

Charles  V.  of  France  (1380)  mention  is  made  of  lec- 
terns and  coffers  of  inlaid  ivory  or  bone,  in  ebony, 
and  similar  works  are  mentioned  in  the  inventories  of 
Charles  VI.  (1418),  and  of  Anne  of  Brittany  (1498)- 
These  are  the  earliest  notices  of  marquetry  furniture 
that  was  made  in  France,  and  was  probably  an  imita- 
tion of  Oriental  work. 

In  the  Renaissance  period  Francois  I.  bought  some 
magnificent  furniture  of  Indian  workmanship,  inlaid 
with  mother-of-pearl,  from  Portuguese  merchants,  and 
mention  is  made  of  chairs,  tables,  coffers,  cabinets,  and 
mirror-frames  that  belonged  to  Queen  Marie  de  Medicis 
(1600),  the  Cardinal  d'Amboise  (1500),  and  other 
great  persons  of  the  French  Court,  all  of  which  works 
were  made  in  marquetry. 

In  France  before  the  sixteenth  century,  tortoise- 
shell,  brass,  tin,  and  exotic  woods  were  used  as  inlays, 
in  addition  to  the  ivory,  ebony,  and  nacre  of  the  East. 
From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  Boulle  did  not  invent  the 
celebrated  marquetry  that  bears  his  name.  He,  how- 
ever, brought  this  sumptuous  form  of  cabinet  work  to 
great  perfection,  and  under  the  patronage  of  Louis 
XIV.  he  had  every  opportunity  to  develop  his  artistic 
abilities  to  the  utmost. 

The  method  of  procedure  in  the  making  of  the 
Boulle  marquetry  was,  first,  to  prepare  the  veneers  of 
wood,  shell,  tin,  and  brass  of  the  same  thickness,  each 
having  perfectly  plain  surfaces;  these  veneers  were 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


67 


then  glued  together  in  pairs  of  opposite  materials,  ac- 
cording to  the   nature  of  the  effect   required  in   the 


Figure  42 

finished  work,  and  were  held  together  firmly  in  a  vice. 
The  design  was  then  traced  on  the  surface  of  the  upper 
leaf,  and  the  veneers  were  then  cut  through  the  lines  of 


68  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

the  pattern  with  a  burin,  a  sharp  strong  knife,  or  a 
fine  saw ;  thus  four  pieces  of  marquetry  were  made  at 
one  cutting.  When  the  plaque  forming  the  design  was 
composed'  of  tin  or  brass,  which  was  afterwards  en- 
graved or  chased,  it  was  technically  called  "boulle"; 
and  when  the  design  was  formed  by  the  shell  or  ebony 
it  was  called  "counter" ;  the  two  effects  are  together 
known  as  "boulle  and  counter"  or  premiere  et  contre- 
partie. 

A  later  kind  of  Boulle  work,  known  as  the  Second 
Style,  has  the  shell  veneers  laid  on  a  clouded  vermilion 
or  on  a  gilt  ground. 

Boulle  was  an  artist  of  great  excellence  as  a  sculptor 
and  chaser  of  metals;  his  mountings  of  foliage  and 
masks  which  decorated  his  works  are  spirited  in  design 
and  are  skilfully  chased  and  finished  (Fig.  42).  He 
executed  a  great  number  of  costly  pieces  of  his  famous 
marquetry  for  Louis  XIV.  and  the  Dauphin  of  France, 
many  of  which  found  their  way  to  England  a  century 
later.  Examples  of  Boulle  work  fetch  great  prices 
when,  as  on  rare  occasions,  they  make  their  appear- 
ance in  a  sale. 

In  Germany  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  most 
prominent  names  as  designers  and  makers  of  furniture 
are  Philip  Heinhofer,  Baumgartner,  and  Hans  Schwan- 
hard.  The  former  was  the  maker  of  the  celebrated 
Pomeranian  Cabinet  (1611-1617)  which  is  now  in  the 
Royal  Museum  at  Berlin. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


69 


Figure  43 


70 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


In  this  century,  in  Italy,  Andrea  Brustolone  (1670- 
1732)  was  noted  as  a  carver,  gilder,  and  cabinet-maker 
who  worked  in  the  extravagant  style  of  the  Louis 
Quinze  (Louis  XV.),  and  in  the  first  half  of  the 


Figure  44 


eighteenth  century  (1700-77)  Pifetti,  a  Piedmontese 
cabinet-maker,  was  honored  by  the  Italian  Court,  for 
which  he  executed  many  works  in  ivory  carving  and 
marquetry  work  in  the  style  of  Boulle.  Many  other 
cabinet-makers  and  carvers  were  employed  to  make 
furniture  and  to  decorate  the  queen's  palace  at  Turin, 
among  whom  may  be  mentioned  the  names  of  Galleti, 
the  successor  of  Pifetti,  and  Maggiolino  of  Milan,  who 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  71 

chiefly  made  a  kind  of  marquetry  in  light  woods.  We 
are  indebted  to  Air.  J.  H.  Pollen's  handbook  on  furni- 
ture for  some  of  these  names,  and  a  list  of  many  others 
will  be  found  at  the  end  of  his  useful  book. 

The  French  architect,  Le  Pantre  (1617-82),  de- 
signed furniture  and  decoration  in  the  heavy  classical 
style  of  the  Roman  antique,  mixed  with  shell-work, 
grotesques,  and  little  Cupids  or  "putti,"  and  also  en- 
graved and  published  a  book  of  studies  of  Roman  orna- 
ment from  sketches  that  his  master,  Adam  Phillipon, 
had  made  in  Italy.  He  worked  with  Le  Brun,  the 
painter  and  director  of  the  decoration  at  Versailles. 
Le  Bran's  own  work  was  heavy  and  dull,  although  he 
aimed  at  grandeur  and  gorgeousness  of  effect.  He  was 
director  of  the  Gobelins  tapestry  manufactory,  and  his 
style  of  work  was  in  harmony  with  the  pompous  ideas 
of  Louis  the  "Grand  Monarch."  Madame  de  Main- 
tenon  says  in  one  of  her  letters  to  a  friend,  that  Louis 
was  so  fond  of  symmetry  and  stateliness  in  his  archi- 
tecture, as  in  other  things,  that  he  would  have  you 
"perish  in  his  symmetry,"  for  he  caused  his  doors  and 
windows  to  be  constructed  in  pairs  opposite  to  one 
another,  which  gave  to  everybody  who  lived  in  his 
palaces  their  death  of  cold  by  draughts  of  air. 

In  this  century  and  early  in  the  following  one,  the 
art  of  wood  carving  was  greatly  developed  in  England, 
chiefly  owing  to  the  genius  of  Grinling  Gibbons  and 
to  the  influence  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  the  style  de- 


72  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

veloped  being  a  more  or  less  realistic  or  baroque  form 
of  the  Renaissance  ( Figs.  44  and  45 )  •    Gibbons  carried 


Figure  45 

out  some  of  his  carvings  to  an  astonishing  degree  of 
realism:  bouquets  of  flowers,  festoons  of  fruit  and 
flowers,  birds,  figures,  and  drapery  were  executed  by 
Kim  in  the  highest  possible  relief,  which  looked  de- 


THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  73 

tached  from  the  ground,  and  yet  they  usually  formed  a 
part  of  the  solid  wood  with  the  background.  Orna- 
ment was  carved  with  a  singular  crispness,  and  ap- 
parently without  any  hesitation  on  the  part  of  the 
carver.  Though  we  may  condemn  the  florid  looseness 
of  the  style  of  Gibbons,  we  must  admire  the  dexterity 
of  workmanship  and  general  technical  excellence  im- 
parted to  everything  he  touched.  Some  of  his  best 
work  may  still  be  seen  at  Chatsworth,  Petworth  House 
in  Sussex,  Lyme  Hall  in  Cheshire,  St.  Paul's  Cathedral, 
and  Trinity  College  Chapel  at  Oxford. 

Under  the  Regency  of  Philippe  d'Orleans  in  France 
(1715-1723)  decoration  and  ornament  assumed  a  light 
and  fanciful  character,  very  naturalistic,  but  still  hav- 
ing some  classic  details ;  of  this  style  Claude  Gillot 
is  the  chief  exponent.  Watteau,  his  pupil,  made  a  great 
name  as  a  painter  of  pastoral  scenes,  fetes  galantes, 
and  all  kinds  of  light  and  daintily-treated  subjects  of 
a  theatrical  and  artificial  kind  of  composition.  His 
color  was  silvery  and  harmonious,  and  sometimes  he 
decorated  furniture  with  pastoral  scenes. 

The  Rococo  style  had  begun  under  the  Regency,  if 
not  earlier,  and  such  men  as  Oppenort,  the  De  Cottes, 
father  and  son,  Francois  de  Cuvillies,  the  Italians 
Bernini  and  Borromini,  and  lastly  the  great  apostle  of 
the  Rococo,  Meissonier,  were  all  designers  of  furniture 
or  architects  who  belonged  to  the  period  of  Louis  XV., 
and  who  executed  works  that  reflected  the  loose  and 


74  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

unrestrained  character  of  the  times  (1723-1774). 
Chinese  and  naturalistic  elements  were  grafted  on,  or 
mixed  with,  the  former  Louis  Quatorze,  with  an  addi- 
tion of  still  life  that  did  duty  for  architectural  form  in 
objects  of  pottery  and  metal  work,  and  a  combination 
of  shell  work;  all  these  elements  made  up  the  style 
known  under  the  different  names  of  rococo,  rocaille, 
baroque,  or  Louis  Quinze. 

Furniture  was  made  with  curved  and  swelling-  panels 
to  show  to  more  advantage  the  marquetry,  or  paintings 
on  gold  grounds ;  these  kinds  of  panels  and  friezes  were 
known  as  "bombe." 

It  is  said  that  the  Italian  architects,  Bernini  and 
Borromini,  were  the  first  to  introduce  the  rococo  style 
into  France,  but  no  designer  went  so  far  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  its  vagaries  as  the  French  Meissonier.  His 
ornament  furnishes  a  perfect  example  of  the  want  of 
balance  and  symmetry.  He  designed  for  furniture, 
woodwork,  silver-smithery,  and  modelled  decoration, 
all  of  which  work  illustrated  the  broken  shell-shaped 
panels  with  frilled  and  scalloped  edgings  and  curved 
mouldings. 

Rooms  were  lined  with  looking-glasses  having  these 
rocaille  mouldings,  which  were  well  adapted  to  show 
to  the  best  advantage  the  glitter  of  the  gold  leaf  that 
was  used  inordinately  on  the  furniture  and  decoration 
of  the  Louis-Ouinze  period. 

Pierre  Germain,  Jean  Restout,  and  Jean  Pillment  are 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


75 


well-known  names  of  other  designers  of  the  rocaille 
style. 

Painted  panels  of  pastoral  scenes  and  flower  groups 


Figure  4G 

were  the  usual  color  decorations  of  ceilings,  furniture, 
carriages,  and  a  host  of  minor  articles  such  as  fans, 
etuis,  snuff-boxes,  &c.  The  latter  smaller  articles,  as 
well  as  the  state  carriages,  were  decorated  with  paint- 


76  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  47 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  77 

ings  in  what  was  known  as  the  Verms-Martin  style. 
Martin  was  a  decorator  of  carriages  and  an  heraldic 
painter,  who  invented  the  particular  hard  varnish  or 
lacquer  which  bears  his  name.  It  was  quite  likely  that 
this  was  as  near  as  possible  a  successful  imitation  of 
the  Japanese  gold  lacquer  that  decorated  the  articles 
which  were  at  this  period  imported  from  Japan  by  the 
Dutch  and  Portuguese  traders  into  Europe.  Car- 
riages, tables,  cabinets,  and  especially  smaller  articles 
like  snuff-boxes  and  needle-cases,  were  painted  and 
decorated  in  "Verms-Martin."  Some  of  the  smaller 
objects  were  beautifully  mounted  in  chased  gold. 

It  was  quite  a  common  practice  to  cover  or  to  panel 
furniture  with  plaques  of  Japanese  lacquer,  and  to 
mount  them  in  chased  metal  or  ormoulu  decorations. 
A  unique  commode  is  illustrated  at  Fig.  47,  made  from 
panels  of  very  old  Japanese  lacquer  and  highly  dec- 
orated with  ormoulu  mounts  by  Caffieri,  a  skilled  chaser 
of  the  Louis-Quinze  period. 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  an  im- 
provement in  the  design  of  furniture  and  of  ornament 
generally  crept  in,  owing  to  the  study  of  the  orna- 
mentation and  design  of  the  classic  objects  that  had 
been  found  in  the  buried  cities  of  Herculaneum  and 
Pompeii.  These  cities  had  been  discovered  in  1713,  and 
about  forty  or  fifty  years  later  books  were  published 
illustrating  the  buried  remains,  which  helped  to  change 


78 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  79 

the  public  taste,  and  by  degrees  a  demand  arose  for 
designs  of  a  more  severe  and  classic  kind. 

The  prevailing  taste  was  then  apparently  gratified  by 
the  mixture  or  grafting  of  a  certain  quality  of  classic 
forms  with  the  former  frivolous  style  of  the  Louis 
Quinze. 

The  style  in  furniture  and  in  ornament  now  de- 
veloped into  what  is  known  as  the  "Louis  Seize" 
(Louis  XVI. ),  and  consisted  in  its  ornament  of  a  com- 
position of  then  scrolls,  garlands,  bows  and  quivers  of 
arrows,  ribbons  and  knots,  medallions  with  classic 
cameo-cut  subjects.  Mouldings  were  fine  and  delicately 
ornamented  and  of  straight  line  variety;  in  fact,  the 
straight  line  now  reasserted  itself  in  architecture  and 
furniture  design  (see  Figs.  48,  49),  in  refreshing  and 
healthy  contrast  to  the  tottering  and  riotous  curves  of 
Louis  XV.  and  the  Du  Barry  period. 

Some  of  the  most  beautiful  furniture  expressive  of 
the  utmost  elegance  was  made  by  Riesner  and  David, 
and  was  decorated  with  ormoulu  mounts  by  Gouthiere 
for  the  Queen  Marie  Antoinette.  Riesner  and  Gouthiere 
were  the  ablest  men  of  their  time,  who  generally  worked 
together  in  the  making  and  decorating  of  the  finest 
furniture  of  this  period.  There  is  in  the  Jones  Collec- 
tion at  South  Kensington  some  of  the  very  finest  ex- 
amples of  this  furniture,  much  of  which  was  made 
for  Marie  Antoinette  (Figs.  50,  51). 

Riesner  usually  worked  in  light  and  richly-colored 


80 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  49 


THE   PRACTICAL    CABIXET    MAKER 


81 


woods,  such  as  tulip-wood,  holly,  maple,  laburnum, 
purple-wood,  and  rosewood,  for  his  marquetry  work, 
and  used  oak  for  the  linings  and  foundations. 


Figure  50 


The  best  pieces  of  David  and  Riesner  were  usually 
mounted  in  ormoulu  or  bronze-gilt  metal  by  Gouthiere, 
who  has  never  been  equalled  as  a  founder  and  chaser 


82  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

of  this  class  of  work.  Prieur  was  also  a  good  chaser 
of  the  Louis  Seize  period.  Delafosse  was  an  architect 
and  designer  of  furniture  and  decoration  of  the  period, 
whose  designs  were  of  a  more  heavy  and  classical  kind. 
Cauvet  was  a  German  who  worked  in  Paris,  and  de- 
signed graceful  arabesques  and  figure  work,  and  who 
published  a  book  of  designs.  Lalonde  designed  work 
that  might  be  classed  in  the  same  category  as  that  of 
Cauvet,  and  Salembier  was  a  prolific  designer  of  a  light 
and  free  kind  of  arabesque.  Many  of  his  designs  for 
silk  may  be  seen  in  the  fabric  at  the  Silk  Museum  in  the 
Bourse  at  Lyons.  Le  Notre  designed  for  furniture, 
carving,  and  was  also  famed  with  La  Quintinie  as  a 
designer  of  the  state  and  public  gardens. 

In  Italy  the  prevailing  ornament  in  furniture  and 
decoration  was  more  classical  than  in  France.  Piranesi, 
Albertolli,  Pergolese,  and  Bartolozzi  are  names  of  the 
principal  designers  of  this  country  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  most  of  whom  published  extensive  works  on 
ornament.  The  latter  two  were  brought  to  England 
by  the  brothers  John  and  Robert  Adam  (1728-1792), 
who  had  travelled  in  Italy,  bringing  also  with  them 
classical  ideas,  which  they  developed  in  England,  and 
which  influenced  to  a  great  extent  the  style  of  archi- 
tecture and  furniture  design  in  this  country.  The 
Adelphi  building  and  the  houses  in  Portland  Place  were 
built  from  designs  by  the  Adams. 

All  kinds  of  furniture,  sedan  chairs,  carriages,  plate, 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  83 


Figure  51 


84 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


&c.,  were  made  from  their  designs.  Fine  mouldings, 
medallions,  rosettes,  light  garlands,  capitals  in  classic 
form,  fluted  pilasters  and  columns,  were  all  designed  by 
them  with  the  utmost  restraint  in  style — even  to 
coldness. 


Figure  53 


Thomas  Chippendale  was  a  famous  cabinet-maker  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  His  furniture,  or  even  any 
good  imitation  of  it,  fetches  a  good  price  at  the  present 
time.  He  published  a'  book  on  furniture  design  and 
interior  decoration  in  the  year  1764.  His  sons  are  sup- 
posed to  have  made  nearly  all  the  best  of  the  mahogany 
furniture  known  as  "Chippendale." 

The  parlor  chairs  (Figs.  52  and  53)  are  good  ex- 
amples of  Chippendale  furniture,  and  the  chairs  made 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


85 


in  the  so-called  "Chinese  style"   (Fig.  54)  are  attrib- 
uted to  the  elder  Chippendale. 

Sheraton  and  Heppehvhite  are  names  of  two  other 


Figure  54 


well-known  cabinet-makers,  who  made  excellent  ma- 
hogany furniture  in  the  last  century,  both  of  whom 
published  works  on  the  subject  at  the  latter  end  of 
the  century. 

The  names  of  Gillow,  Lichfield,  Lock,  and  Copland 
are  those  of  eminent  cabinet-makers  and  decorators  of 


86  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

this  period,  the  two  former  firms  being  still  in  existence 
in  London. 

In  France,  after  the  Revolution  (i;92)>  more  de~ 
cided  phase  of  the  dry  and  heavy  classicisms  was  ap- 
parent in  the  furniture  design  and  decoration  of  the 
period  ( 1801 ).  This  return  to  the  classic  heaviness  has 
been  attributed  to  the  influence  of  the  academic  painter 
David,  but  is  more  likely  to  have  been  a  pandering  to 
the  national  worship  of  Napoleon  and  the  French  Em- 
pire. It  seemed  to  have  been  the  universal  desire  to 
make  everything  echo  or  reflect  in  some  measure  the 
glory  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I.  The  meanest  thing 
had  some  symbol  or  allusion  by  the  way  of  decoration 
that  should  remind  everybody  of  the  greatness  of  the 
new  monarch  and  of  the  French  Empire,  and  conse- 
quently the  heavy  and  ponderous  style  of  that  period 
was  known  as  the  "Empire  Style."  The  furniture  of 
the  Empire  was  usually  made  in  mahogany,  decorated 
with  mountings  in  brass  or  bronze,  of  sphinxes,  griffins,- 
Roman  emblems,  and  antique  scrollery. 

Percier  and  Fontaine  are  names  of  French  cabinet- 
makers and  designers  who  worked  in  the  Empire  style, 
and  who  published  a  book  of  their  designs.  (Fig.  55.) 

In  England  the  style  was  copied,  and  endless  imita- 
tions of  the  French  fashion  in  tables,  sofas,  chairs,  cabi- 
nets, and  clocks  were  designed  after  the  same  antique 
ideals. 

In  this  country,  during  the  earlier  half  of  the  last 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


87 


century  the  mediaeval  Gothic  style  was  partly  revived 
in  architecture  and  in  furniture,  mainly  owing  to  the 
efforts  of  W.  Pugin,  the  architect.  He  designed  many 


Figure  55 

pieces  of  furniture,  and  published  a  work  consisting  of 
Gothic  designs  in  the  year  1835.  Notwithstanding  the 
efforts  of  Pugin  and  some  other  eminent  architects  and 
"purists,"  no  particular  lasting  impression  was  made  in 
this  direction. 

If  \ve  except  a  few  of  the  best  cabinet-makers'  shops, 
where  in  the  present  day  some  furniture  of  good  design 


88 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET   .MAKER 


Figure  56 

is  made,  the  majority  of  such  work  is  now  made  by  ma- 
chinery, or  is  often  too  much  the  work  of  the  uphol- 
sterer, and  is  consequently  less  artistic  and  more  me- 
chanical in  both  design  and  construction. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  89 

Some  of  the  most  beautiful  of  Japanese  and  Chinese 
manufacture  is  made  in  carved  wood  and  lacquered  in 
black  or  red.  Cabinets  with  drawers  and  quaintly  con- 
trived cupboards  and  recesses  (Fig.  55)  are  made  by 
the  Japanese,  finished  in  lacquers,  and  inlaid  with  ivory 
and  mother  -  of  -  pearl.  The 
Chinese  are  especially  skilled 
in  carving  red  lac- work. 
Some  vases  of  great  dimen- 
sions and  of  exquisite  work- 
manship in  this  material  may 
be  seen  in  the  various  Mu- 
seums. Lac-work  is  also  ex- 
ecuted with  great  skilfulness 
by  the  natives  of  India. 
Bracelets,  armlets,  or  golias, 
are  made  of  lac  in  various 
colors,  the  golden  decorations 
of  which  are  made  from  tin- 
foil and  varnished  with  a 
yellow  varnish  made  of 
myrrh,  copal,  and  sweet  oil 
boiled  together.  Boxes,  bed- 
posts, and  other  furniture, 
made  in  wood  or  papier- 
mache,  are  lacquered  and 
decorated  with  flat  render- 
ings of  flowers  and  conven- 


90  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

tional  shapes  of  animals  and  birds  (Figs.  56,  57).  All 
kinds  of  toys,  weights  and  measures,  cooking  utensils, 
circular  playing-cards,  turnery,  etc.,  are  objects  in  small 
wares  made  in  the  choicest  lac-work  of  India. 

STYLE  IN  FURNITURE  AND  DETAILS  OF  STYLE. 

In  looking  back  through  the  past  ages,  since  the  days 
of  the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  after  lis- 
tening to  the  wonderful  tales  of  the  magnificent  luxury 
and  extreme  prodigality  of  the  sovereigns  who  reigned, 
and  of  the  Lords  and  Ladies  who  lived  in  those  times, 
we  are  led  to  suppose  that  the  furniture  of  these  palaces 
was  of  a  kind  that  if  it  could  be  restored  to  its  original 
splendour  would  strike  our  eyes  in  this  present  genera- 
tion as  something  great  in  architectural  beauty  and  daz- 
zling in  its  gorgeousness. 

We  have  learned  to  look  with  longing  eyes  on  the 
Ottoman  Empire  as  the  place  where  luxurious  ease  has 
reached  the  highest  attainable  point  within  the  limits  of 
human  skill,  and  think  that  the  harem  of  the  Turkish 
Vizier  must  be  a  sort  of  fairy  palace  lined  with  silk  and 
satin,  and  full  of  couches  so  soft  and  easy  that  to  re- 
cline on  them  is  enough  to  send  one  to  sleep. 

If  the  truth  were  told,  not  one  person  in  ten  has  any- 
thing like  a  proper  idea  of  what  furniture  was  in  days 
gone  by;  and  stranger  yet,  except  in  a  few  instances, 
people  know  very  little  about  the  finest  furniture  of  the 
present  day.  One  shop  will  turn  out  a  bedstead,  an- 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  91 

other  a  set  of  frames,  and  so  on,  but  the  people  that 
make  them  seldom  see  them  after  they  are  finished,  and 
in  a  house  that  is  carpeted,  curtained,  and  completely 
furnished,  and  if  they  did,  would  scarcely  recognize 
them  as  the  results  of  their  handiwork. 

The  majority  of  people  obtain  their  ideas  of  furni- 
ture, modern  as  well  as  ancient,  from  reading,  and  two- 
thirds  of  the  descriptions  of  furniture  that  are  written 
are  fabrications  of  some  fertile  brain  that  does  not 
know  a  sideboard  with  a  glass  in  it  from  a  bureau. 
Therefore  when  we  read  accounts  of  ancient  furniture 
and  its  great  superiority  over  that  in  use  now,  first  see 
whence  the  authority  comes  before  believing  it  all.  We 
have  seen  accounts  of  the  magnificence  of  the  furniture 
of  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Constantine ;  of  the  tables 
and  chairs  inlaid  with  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones ; 
of  ease  and  barbaric  splendour  that  was  startling; 
whereas  the  same  chairs  and  tables  were  as  uncouth  and 
cumbersome  and  uncomfortable  as  most  people  believe 
them  to  be  comfortable  and  elegant.  They  may  have 
been  heavy  with  gems,  but  the  gems  were  beautiful — 
not  the  chairs. 

In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  more  atten- 
tion was  paid  to  the  architectural  part  of  furniture  than 
at  any  time  before  or  since,  but  they  lacked  comfort, 
and  we  owe  it  to  the  French  that  instead  of  following 
the  true  principles  of  architecture  and  endeavouring  to 
furnish  luxury  with  art,  they  adopted  a  gaudy  tinsel 


92  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

style  that  ha'd  no  art  and  little  comfort.  Marie  An- 
toinette set  a  fashion  of  glitter  and  glare,  and  in  her 
time  more  money  was  spent  in  gorgeous  furniture  than 
at  any  other  since  the  dark  ages,  not  even  excepting  the 
shoddy  time  within  our  own  recollection. 

Although  there  is  much  fault  to  be  found  with  mod- 
ern furniture,  at  no  time  has  it  been  any  better  than 
it  is  now,  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  people — and  while 
we  condemn  the  want  of  architectural  merit,  much,  par- 
ticularly in  the  richer  classes,  of  the  present  day,  is 
superior  to  that  of  the  ancients.  The  furniture  of  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  had  artistic  merit  and 
but  little  comfort,  and  was  so  rude  in  construction  that 
the  beauty  of  design  was  lost  in  the  rough,  unfinished 
look  it  presented,  while  today  high  finish,  elegance  of 
construction,  and  inviting  look  of  comfort,  do  much  to 
retard  the  introduction  of  pure  architecture.  When  these 
two  things,  art  and  comfort,  are  combined,  as  they  well 
may  be,  and  soon  will  be,  for  we  are  glad  to  see  the  in- 
clination in  that  way,  it  will  be  said  years  hence  that  the 
people  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury were  the  first  to  turn 
out  perfect  furniture.  We 
ought  more  properly  to  have 
said  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  for  per- 
haps nothing  could  be  much  An  Old  Cradle 
worse  than  the  furniture  of  the  earlier  part,  particu- 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  93 

larly  here  in  our  own  land,  for  we  had  a  mixture  of  the 
French,  always  bad,  of  the  English,  that  was  nonde- 
script, and  of  the  Puritans,  that  was — what  shall  we 
call  it  ?  let  it  be  nameless ; — we  all  know  how  it  looked, 
and  none  would  now  care  to  use  it. 

The  sumptuous  furniture  of  old,  is  of  itself  sufficient 
to  prove  the  truth  of  the  statement  which  has  been  made 
as  to  the  advances  made  during  the  period  of  wealth  and 
luxury.  One  could  not  desire  to  see  a  more  beautiful 
bedroom,  for  instance,  than  that  in  which  James  I.  of 
England  was  accustomed  to  sleep  during  his  visits  to 
Knole,  in  Kent,  and  which  is,  to  our  minds,  only  the 
more  attractive  for  a  kind  of  grave  stateliness  that 
pervades  the  whole.  The  mothers  of  the  present  day 
may,  perhaps,  feel  interested  in  knowing  what  kind  of 
article  a  cradle  was  about  three  centuries  ago;  it  was 
a  species  of  box,  or  coffer  on  rockers,  decorated  elab- 
orately with  carvings.  In  later  times  French  feeling 
crept  into  our  furniture  and,  to  our  thinking,  by  no 
means  improved  it. 

Illustrations  of  the  elaborate  and  highly  decorated 
character  of  the  furniture  belonging  to  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries,  are  shown  in  our  pages,  from 
which  our  readers  may  derive  some  useful  and  sugges- 
tive hints  from  these  reproductions. 

There  is,  we  know,  of  great  power  in  this  world,  a 
certain  fascinating  spirit,  called  fashion ;  which  con- 
trols the  fancy,  and  compels  it  to  a  predilection,  and,  at 


94  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

its  pleasure,  to  a  change  of  predilection,  for  forms  and 
colors,  and  practices,  quite  independently  of  reason,  and 
not  seldom  in  the  most  direct  opposition  to  common- 
sense. 

Fashion  nevertheless  is  sometimes  a  brainless  spirit, 
if  the  expression  may  be  allowed  of  spirit ;  and  without 
sense  of  good  or  evil.  It  will  ally  itself  with  taste, 
whether  good  or  bad,  and  with  moral  order,  good  or 
bad.  Among  the  Greeks  of  old,  connecting  itself  with 
good  taste  (we  wish  we  could  add  good  morals)  in  its 
progress  towards  perfection,  and  maintaining  the  alli- 
ance, when  perfection  was  attained,  Fashion  was  of 
inestimable  value.  In  some  instances  Fashion  has  been 
found  capable  of  fixing  a  good  moral  order ;  and  then 
of  course  it  has  been  of  worth  still  far  more  transcend- 
ant.  But  this  brainless  spirit,  perhaps  oftener  has  made 
bad  taste  immovable;  of  which  the  Chinese  afford  a 
great  example. 

But,  among  the  Greeks,  in  architecture,  in  literature, 
even  in  dress,  things  were  so  settled,  that  one  general 
character  of  Grecian  taste  has  been  the  allowed  criterion 
of  perfection,  for  now  about  three  thousand  years.  How 
was  it  that  the  spirit  of  fashion,  among  them,  held  such 
persevering  connection  with  the  spirits  of  common  sence 
and  good  taste?  Could  it  be  because  women  were  so 
excluded  from  general  society  as  to  have  little  influence 
in  directing  Fashion,  or  in  supporting  her  in  her  way- 
ward fancies?  Surely  the  spirit  of  steadiness  is  not 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  95 

alien  from  the  English  character :  in  graver  matters  \ve 
know  it  to  be  eminent.  The  famous  "Nolumus  leges 
Angliae  mutari,"  has  been  persevered  in  for  centuries; 
and  we  may  hope  will  be  persevered  in  as  long  as  the 
world  shall  last,  or  as  long  as  it  shall  please  providence 
that  the  English  nation  exist.  But  in  matters  of  taste, 
certainly  it  has  not  been  so. 

There  is  not  a  demon  more  adverse  to  good  taste 
than  the  spirit  of  Novelty.  In  matters  of  taste,  as  in 
almost  everything,  there  are  commonly  many  wrong 
ways  for  one  right.  Xow  the  spirit  of  Novelty  allows 
readily  the  passing  from  wrong  to  right ;  but  at  no  rate, 
the  perseverance  in  right;  whence  wrong  must,  many 
times  to  one,  with  him,  prevail.  \Yith  this  spirit,  fash- 
ion has  long,  in  this  country,  but  especially  of  late  days, 
held  close  alliance.  Fashion  has  no  will  of  her  own ;  but 
Novelty,  though  ever-changing,  has,  for  the  moment, 
a  most  determined  one.  Thus,  Fashion  still  appearing 
the  imperial  lady,  and  Novelty  but  her  minister,  he 
easily  leads'  her  his  own  way. 

In  what  high  estimation  both  these  whimsical  spirits 
are  held  very  extensively,  not  to  say  universally,  among 
the  ladies,  is  enough  known.  The  ladies  even  in  Amer- 
ica rarely  have  their  natural  good  taste  improved,  but 
often  much  perverted  by  education.  Taught  from  in-- 
fancy  to  revere  the  majesty  of  Fashion  and  to  consider 
her  sovereignty  as  not  to  be  even  decently  opposed,  with 
a  living  feeling  for  the  charms  of  Novelty,  they  set 


96  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

about  their  imperial  business  of  furnishing  a  house. 
Ranging  the  fashionable  upholsterers'  warehouses,  they 
feel  themselves  as  in  a  sea  of  delights,  but  as  in  a  vessel 
with  a  port  to  seek.  Without  a  compass  they  look  to 
Fashion  as  their  polar  star,  their  sails  are  filled  by 
Novelty,  and  they  give  the  helm  to  fancy. 

The  sky  i's  clear,  the  weather  most  temperate;  but 
under  license  of  Fashion,  Novelty,  with  his  handmaid 
Variety,  dispensing  the  winds,  they  are  ever  shifting. 
Fancy,  distracted,  grows  giddy;  her  nerves  falter,  her 
hand  shakes,  her  eyes  twinkle,  and  she  can  no  longer  by 
day  take  the  height  of  the  sun,  or  by  night  with  any  cer- 
tainty discover  her  polar  star,  a  changeling  polar  star, 
Fashion.  Thus  distressed,  the  lady  seeks  advice  from 
experience,  and  the  cabinet-maker  or  upholsterer  is 
called  to  her  assistance. 

Beyond  all  others  the  spirit  of  Novelty  and  Variety 
are  objects  of  the  upholsterer's  workshop.  He  professes 
infinite  reverence  for  Fashion.  But  his  loyalty  is  for 
the  fashion  that  may  happen  to  reign  for  the  day :  nor 
is  it,  like  the  Vicar  of  Bray's,  an  ever  acquiescing  loy- 
alty; on  the  contrary,  he  is  ever  aiming  at  revolution. 
The  lady  is  aware  of  the  unsteadiness  of  the  reign  of 
Fashion ;  and  not  less  anxious  than  the  upholsterer  to  be 
prepared  to  adore  the  rising  sun;  but  with  this  differ- 
ence: he  is  always  ready  for  revolution;  she  devotes 
herself  more  to  the  present  power,  and  dreads  changes, 
in  which  others  may  be  before  her.  Not  wholly  un- 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  97 

aware  then  of  hazard  in  committing  herself  to  his  ad- 
vice, having  made  her  inquiries,  and  gained  all  attain- 
able information'  her  purpose  is  to  direct  her  uphol- 
sterer ;  but  he  is  versed  in  the  ways  of  leading  her. 

It  behooves  the  cabinet-maker  and  upholsterer  much 
to  have  talent  in  matters  of  taste,  and  to  cultivate  it  so 
as  to  distinguish  good  from  bad ;  but  more,  it  behooves 
him  to  know  the  weak  points  in  human  nature.  Noth- 
ing so  advantageous  for  him  as  to  gain  prevalence  for 
a  new  fashion  of  very  bad  taste ;  and  the  more  grossly 
bad  the  surer  and  greater  his  benefit ;  because  the  easier 
will  be  the  task  to  bring  about  another  change ;  for  of 
all  things  change  is  most  beneficial  to  him. 

The  upholsterer's  interest  then  is  in  direct  opposition 
to  the  architect's  credit.  Put  him  into  command  in  a 
room,  and  his  first  purpose  must  be  to  overwhelm  the 
architect's  work.  What  are  elegancies  in  stucco,  stone, 
or  marble  to  him?  For  daylight  indeed  he  is  a  little 
dependent ;  he  must  have  windows  from  the  architect ; 
and  till  stoves  were  brought  into  use  he  wanted  him 
also  for  the  chimney.  But  for  candlelight,  "Give  me  a 
barn,"  he  says,  "and  I  will  so  throw  my  many-folded 
drapery,  suspended  on  my  golden  thyrsus-fashioned 
poles,  that  nothing  shall  be  seen  needing  the  architect's 
art  to  supply." 

To  proceed  with  this  subject,  I  will  venture  only  to 
state  a  principle  or  two,  which  I  trust  you  will  admit, 
and  I  hope  you  will  recommend  to  the  ladies.  When  a 


98  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

house  is  ready  for  the  furnisher  if  it  has  any  decoration 
of  architecture  fit  to  be  seen,  and  not  rather  deserving 
to  be  treated  as  the  upholsterer  would  very  properly 
treat  the  barn,  the  style  of  that  decoration  should  be  re- 
spected in  the  design  of  the  furniture.  Either  all  should 
be  upholstery,  or  the  upholstery  should  be  subordinate 
to  the  architecture,  and  harmonize  with  it.  Can  it  be 
requisite — I  fear  it  may — to  superadd,  that  the  furni- 
ture should  harmonize  with  itself  through  all  its  parts ; 
that  gaudy  and  ill  assorted  colors,  awkward  forms,  and 
even  elegant  forms  and  foldings,  in  that  kind  of  display 
which  may  deserve  the  epithet  meretricious,  however 
warranted  by  the  fashion  of  the  day,  should  be  avoided. 
With  what  ideas  do  that  nakedness  of  the  female  figure, 
and  that  abundant  complexity,  that  mystery  of  folding, 
of  the  drapery  about  the  room  to  receive  such  figures,  as 
we  have  been  accustomed  to  see,  harmonize?  Fashion 
indeed  is  powerful,  and  sometimes  grossly  perverse. 
What  could  be  reasonably  done  with  the  human  head 
during  the  century  and  more  of  the  successive  fashions 
of  the  full  bottomed  wig,  the  aile-de-pigeon  hair-dress- 
ing, and  all  that  intervened  and  followed,  till  wigs  and 
elaborate  hair-dressing  were  both  abolished?  Fashion, 
it  must  be  confessed,  has  a  strange  power  of  fascina- 
tion, which  even  strong  minds  have  difficulty  wholly  to 
resist,  even  when  that  power  is  exerted  most  in  opposi- 
tion to  evident  reason.  But  it  is  only  when  a  fashion 
has  obtained  universal  and  lasting  prevalence  that  rea- 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  99 

son  is  so  compelled  to  submit  to  it.  Generally  large 
choice  is  open.  Reason  and  better  taste  may  well  ven- 
ture upon  opposition  to  partial  and  ephemeral  absurd- 
ities, and,  with  due  exertion,  would  prevent  their  gain- 
ing any  overbearing  ascendency. 

The  present  rage  for  old  articles  of  household  use, 
table  decoration,  and  personal  adornment  is  a  whim  of 
fashion,  in  many  instances  the  coveted  articles  having 
no  element  of  propriety  in  our  modern  life.  Very  few 
of  them  are  valuable  jn  the  light  of  sentiment,  having  no 
association  with  beloved  friends  or  with  historical 
events. 

But  apart  from  these  considerations  the  love  for  gen- 
uine old  relics  of  furniture,  especially,  has  an  excellent 
reason  for  its  being.  There  are  really  valuable  and  use- 
ful articles  of  household  economy  which  unreasoning 
style  has  relegated  to  the  second-hand  furniture  store, 
to  the  attic,  or  to  the  barn,  or  perhaps  ruthlessly  de- 
stroyed, and  which  have  been  replaced  by  modern  arti- 
cles far  inferior.  The  present  spring  seat  sofa  with  its 
tufted  cushions  and  tortoise  back  seat  is  not  half 
so  inviting  and  restful  as  the  old-fashioned,  flat  seated, 
broad  sofa,  long  enough  to  receive  a  six-footer,  and 
broad  enough  to  hold  him  safely  if  sleep  overtook  him. 
Many  of  these  articles  are  of  solid  wood  with  no  sus- 
picion of  veneering,  and  their  forms  are  really  more 
elegant  than  those  of  to-day.  Modern  veneered  and 
upholstered  furniture  requires  repairing  every  few 


100  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

years,  or  is  worn  beyond  revamping  within  the  recollec- 
tion of  a  ten  year  old  child.  It  is  a  source  of  regret 
that  with  the  rage  for  antique  furniture  there  is  not  also 
a  demand  for  old  time  honesty 
in  workmanship.  In  spite  of 
the  sneer  against  the  old  style 
straight  backed  chairs,  most  of 
the  old  style  furniture  was 
made  for  convenience.  There 
tiever  was  a  more  convenient 
article  of  furniture  than  the 
old  desk  and  drawers  com-  A  Wine  Cabinet 
bined — drawers  below  a  folded-back  desk,  the  back 
being  pigeon  holed,  and  the  desk  on  hinges  to  be  let 
down  to  form  a  writing  shelf,  and  projecting  far 
enough  forward  to  give  room  for  the  writer's  knees. 
The  cupboard  was  another  useful  article  for  the  kitchen 
or  dining  room.  It  contained  two  or  more  wide  draw- 
ers, with  doors  above  them  opening  on  shelves  and 
racks,  the  whole  standing  on  legs  high  enough  to  admit 
of  sweeping  under  the  cupboard.  Memory  recalls  one, 
the  framing  and  ends  being  of  white  walnut  or  hickory 
and  the  door  panels  and  drawer  fronts  of  cherry,  both 
native  woods,  the  creamy  white  of  the  hickory  contrast- 
ing finely  with  the  warm  wine  red  of  the  cherry.  These 
colors  were  set  off  by  pendent  pulls  and  door  key 
escutcheon  of  polished  ungilded  brass  that  could  be  re- 
polished  and  kept  from  the  dilapidated  appearance  of 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  101 


102  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

the  warm  gilded  brass  of  the  present.  Such  an  article  of 
furniture  would  give  an  air  of  substantial  comfort  to 
any  modern  home. 

The  inferiority  of  modern  made  furniture  cannot 
properly  be  attributed  to  machine  duplicated  work ;  it  is 
as  possible  to  make  first  class  work  by  duplicating  by 
machinery  as  by  hand ;  else  our  hand  tools  and  machine 
tools  would  be  much  more  costly  than  they  are.  But  it 
is  undeniable  that  most  of  the  furniture  made  within  the 
memory  of  the  elderly  portion  of  the  present  generation 
compares  favorably  with  that  now  made,  in  durability 
and  integrity  of  workmanship.  In  these  qualities  it 
would  be  well  if  our  manufacturers  shared  in  the  rage 
for  the  antique. 

Mediaeval  furniture — Mobilia,  as  it  is  rightly  styled 
— is  one  of  the  rarest  manifestations  of  art-work  or 
handicraft.  Our  knowledge  of  it  is  principally  from  pic- 
tures, illustrated  MSS.  and  carvings.  Contrary  to  the 
received  opinion  of  some  of  the  acknowledged  author- 
ities on  Mediaeval  art,  we  are  convinced  that  there 
would  be  no  difficulty  in  producing  a  very  complete  his- 
tory of  mobilia,  the  material  for  which  could  be  drawn 
from  the  sources  indicated.  We  see  many  modern  speci- 
mens of  both  a  bad  and  vitiated  class  of  works,  made  at 
a  time  when  splendid  decoration  reigned  in  place  of  art. 
and  indeed  no  such  thing  as  art  existed.  From  this 
period  we  moderns  have  borrowed  almost  all  our 
models,  it  being  precisely  the  most  unhappy  choice  we 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  103 

could  have  made,  not  only  on  account  of  the  amount  of 
useless,  expensive,  and  vulgar  decoration  it  has  led  us 
into,  but  because  the  mere  system  of  construction  adopt- 
ed is  false,  and  so  far,  happily,  insuring  no  lasting  dura- 
bility to  the  products  of  such  workmanship.  The  fur- 
niture of  every  country  has  echoed  in  its  form  and  deco- 
ration the  character  and  spirit  of  the  art  then  prevailing. 
In  Egypt,  of  old,  the  tables,  seats,  couches,  etc.,  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum  and  other  collections,  tes- 
tify to  this;  one  or  two  things  copied  in  bronze  or  mar- 
ble from  Greek  works  of  this  class,  express  exactly  the 
same  kind  of  thing,  and  point  out  by  the  extreme  chas- 
tity of  their  forms,  the  peculiar  idiosyncrasy  of  that 
nation,  no  less  than  by  the  skillful  manner  in  which  they 
are  put  together,  the  mechanical  ability  of  the  work- 
man. Our  knowledge  of  Roman  doings  in  this  matter 
is  derived  from  similar  sources.  One  or  two  examples 
of  curule  chairs  that  might  have  belonged  to  Pro-Con- 
suls of  Gaul  or  elsewhere,  do  indeed  remain,  with 
strange  legends  attached  to  them,  and  saints  and  mon- 
archs  of  very  questionable  verity  or  appropriateness. 
Upon  Pompeian  pictures,  bronzes,  etc.,  we  must  rely, 
without  which  we  should  be  more  ignorant  of  these 
things  than  of  the  seemingly  much  more  perishable  and 
fragile  manufactures  in  glass  and  earthenware,  or  even 
iron,  of  which  such  innumerable  specimens  exist.  We 
have  as  many  remains  of  Assyria  as  of  old  Rome.  There 
is  no  doubt  from  the  gorgeous  illuminations  of  the 


104  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

period  of  the  lower  Empire,  that  the  furniture  then  in 
use  was,  characteristically  wrought,  of  extraordinary 
splendour,  gilded,  incrusted,  and  inlaid  with  ivory  and 
jewels  to  a  degree  that  quite  marred  its  artistic  beauty. 
Of  this,  much  purified  by  Italian  taste,  some  slight 


Figure  59 

traces  are  to  be  found  in  the  Venetian  works,  affected 
as  they  were  in  this,  as  in  other  things,  by  oriental 
neighborhood  and  associations.  The  Venetians  im- 
proved these  works,  be  it  understood,  and  chastened, 
while  they  truly  enriched  the  tawdry  over  decoration 
of  the  Greeks.  Their  conquest  in  the  islands  and  com- 
mercial seats  in  so  many  parts  of  the  Byzantine  Em- 
pire, brought  them  in  contact  with  more  than  one  point 
of  its  character.  '  Of  constructional  felicity  there  is  al- 
most none  in  Byzantine  examples  of  which  we  have 
knowledge. 


THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  105 

In  Europe,  in  the  middle  ages,  the  character  of 
mobilia  was  ever  that  of  current  architecture,  then  the 
art  to  which  all  the  other  major  as  well  as  minor  arts 
were  subordinated, — that  fact  of  their  subordination 
being  one  to  be  ever  most  needfully  borne  in  mind  by 
the  student  of  archaeological  science  and  mediaeval  art. 
We  find  this  leading  fact  constantly  forgotten  by  writ- 
ers on  the  arts.  To  furniture  particularly,  painting  be- 
came serviceable,  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  fif- 
teenth centuries  never  missing  an  opportunity  of  em- 
ploying that  art  in  this  way.  Hence,  several  painters 
began  life  as  decorators,  as  many  more  were  sculptors 
who  began  as  goldsmiths.  Marquetry  was  another 
most  effective  means  of  decoration,  becoming  estimable 
from  an  early  period  of  these  epochs  by  the  careful 
method  of  its  execution,  and,  later,  from  the  fine  forms 
and  colors  its  patterns  displayed.  In  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury much  beautiful  work  was  produced,  its  early  dec- 
ades being,  indeed,  to  be  regarded  as  the  culminating 
period  in  furniture  designing.  Colors  due  to  the  above 
means,  or  rich  velvets  and  silks,  brocaded  or  woven  with 
gold  thread,  took  precedence  in  characteristic  ornamen- 
tation at  a  somewhat  late  portion  of  this  era.  But  carv- 
ing, as  so  many  French  and  German  wrorks  testify,  was 
largely  employed.  Both  these  characters  ran  into  ruin- 
ous riot  in  the  next  epoch,  and  lavish  magnificence  took 
the  place  of  beautiful  design,  the  use  of  things  them- 
selves becoming  hidden  under  a  desire  to  waste  all  the 


106 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


costliness  and  folly  of  extravagant  ornamentation  upon 
them.  At  this  time  began  the  still  existing  mania  for 
furniture  made  for  show ;  and  to  be  shut  up  in  a  room, 
wastefully  decorated  with  merely  costly  ornaments,  in- 
tended to  be  seen  only,  and  but  sparingly  brought  into 
use.  It  was  the  "bright  poker"  idea  at  its  maddest. 
Hence  we  now  find  reception  rooms  that  were  too  fine 
for  use,  and  frail  furniture  neither  man  nor  woman 
dared  to  intrust  their  persons  upon.  More  sumptuosity 
and  ridiculous  degradation  of  taste  burst  out  under 
Louis  XIV.,  when  those  preposterously  tawdry  gew- 
gaws that  are  to  be  seen  here  and  there  in  sale  rooms, 
when  some  old  household  is  broken  up,  overloaded  with 
tortoise  shell,  brass,  sham  jewelry,  and  vile  carvings, 
and  generally  made  to  imitate  something  that  had  not 
the  remotest  resemblance  to  the  real  nature  of  article 
in  question,  but  preferably  that  farthest  from  it.  Thus 
a  cabinet  or  "armoire"  faced  the  world  with  an  extrava- 
gant architectural  frontage, 
and  a  chest  of  drawers  was 
a  miniature  frontage.  As 
was  to  be  expected  from  the 
political  state  of  the  time,  the 
most  hideous  of  these  mon- 
strosities came,  not  from 
France,  where  the  taste  for  these  originated,  but  from 
servile  Germany,  whose  craftsmen  vied  with  each 
other  in  the  cities  of  Nuremburg,  Augsburg,  and  Dres- 


Figure  58 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  107 


108  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

den,  as  to  who  should  make  the  most  monstrous  fool- 
ery at  the  most  wasteful  cost.  Italy,  as  usual,  before 
her  utter  degradation  kept  to  the  fashions  of  an  earlier 
date  or  improved  by  her  native  gift  of  taste,  upon  that 
current  in  such  a  manner  that  something  of  her  old 
inheritance  is  seen  even  at  this  time. 

Later  in  the  seventeenth  century  especially,  this 
whimsicality  took  a  new  bent,  and  a  queer  hothouse 
sort  of  life,  a  meretricious  vitality,  such  as  disease  often 
has,  broke  out,  and  the  Louis  XV.  fashion  got  into 
vogue,  when  oddly  shaped  forms,  mouldings  and  inlays 
were  employed,  and  flat  surfaces  bore  the  works  of 
men's  lives — not  of  their  minds,  but  of  their  patient  dull 
drudgery  at  outre  and  elaborate  combinations  of  art — 
necessarily,  therefore,  devoid  of  real  taste  and  common 
sense.  Incrustations  of  brass,  copper,  tin,  and  even 
silver  were  engraved  by  the  burin  to  imitate  relief  or 
actual  mouldings.  Wreaths,  termed  masks — not  the 
pretty  Amorini  of  an  earlier  age — were  attached  to  the 
articles,  their  office  being  almost  invariably  to  hide  some 
dishonesty  of  construction  or  to  give  a  curve  to  some 
weak  angle  or  strengthen  some  spindling  line,  to  the  eye 
at  least,  but  not  in  fact.  Indeed  it  is  notably  a  marked 
characteristic  of  this  class  of  works  that  all  their  ten- 
dencies are  to  be  willfully  false.  One  sees  at  once  that 
the  craftsman  does  not  err  in  ignorance  of  the  demands 
of  his  duty  because  things  which  might,  constructionally 
employed,  give  real  strength  when  needed,  although  of 


THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  109 

a  supplementary  sort,  willfully  give  only  the  look  of 
strength,  and,  as  if  by  malicious  intention  to  lie  for 
lying's  sake,  neglect  their  duty  when  it  were  easier  to 
do  it  honestly  than  to  fail  or  neglect.  Thus  it  is  in  the 
major  art  of  that  time;  thus  it  was  in  life,  among  the 
leaders,  at  least;  thus  it  was  upon  everything  that  lies 
upon  the  surface  of  that  rotten  era,  that  nothing  but 
the  fiery  ruin  of  revolution  could  purge  pure. 

Mere  costliness  is  no  element  of  art  or  good  taste. 
We  have  seen  very  handsome  chairs  sold  at  a  price  that 
would  condemn  them  in  the  eyes  of  untrained  wealth, 
just  as  we  have  seen  on  the  tea-table  of  the  poor  and 
lowly,  low  cost  china  that  would  put  to  blush — if  it  was 
possible — much  of  the  high  priced  porcelain  that  decor- 
ates the  cabinets  of  the  wealthy.  . 

The  perfecting  of  many  processes  of  manufacture  has 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  artists  and  ornamental  design- 
ers means  for  the  reproduction  and  multiplication  of 
their  works,  of  which  they  have  not  been  slow  to  avail 
themselves.  As  a  class  they  undoubtedly  occupy  more 
definitely  the  position  of  leaders  or  teachers ;  and  we  are 
fairly  entitled  to  hope  that  by  this  teaching  the  standard 
of  public  taste  has  been  raised.  The  soil  to  be  culti- 
vated is  rank  with  weeds,  and  the  intelligent  laborers 
are  few.  Our  manufactures  are  in  advance  of  our 
taste.  The  conditions  of  art  and  manufacture  in  the 
Middle  Ages  are  in  our  day  reversed :  then  there  was  a 
Raphael  to  design,  but  no  Minton  to  reproduce  skillfully 


110  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

and  at  a  cheap  rate  the  pattern  example ;  now  we  have 
the  power  of  cheap  reproduction,  but  not  many  designs 
worth  reproducing;  so  we  wisely  store  our  museums 
with  all  the  best  examples  of  human  invention,  and  thus 
provide  ourselves  at  once  with  a  standard,  and  with  a 
check  upon  any  vain  ideas  we  may  be  disposed  to  en- 
tertain of  our  intellectual  superiority  and  advanced 
taste. 

Never  in  the  world's  history  were  the  means  of 
spreading  a  taste  for  art  among  the  people  as  abundant. 
The  productions  of  our  manufacturers  are  placed  be- 
fore us  with  cheapness  and  certainty,  and  where  bad 
taste  in  designs  is  to  be  noted,  the  fault  can  hardly  be 
laid  at  the  door  of  the  producer,  who,  in  many  cases 
failing  to  secure  the  -services  of  an  original  or  even 
capable  designer,  is  driven  to  pander  to  a  taste  which 
he  would  willingly  enough  direct  if  he  could.  We  have 
so-called  schools  of  design,  instituted  expressly  to  pro- 
vide our  manufacturers  with  intelligent  designers;  and 
we  are  able,  by  means  of  lithographic  printing  and  photo 
engraving,  to  distribute  cheaply  and  make  common 
property  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land 
the  finest  examples  of  all  good  art,  in  whatever  form  it 
may  have  appeared.  Yet,  after  all,  in  the  comprehen- 
sion of  good  design,  in  appreciation  of  beautiful  form, 
in  sentiment  of  color,  we  are  but  a  barbarous  people  as 
compared  with  any  Eastern  nation,  or  with  our  own 
Gothic  ancestors.  The  best  that  can  be  said  of  us  is 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  111 

that  we  feel  our  inferiority  when  we  look  at  an  Indian 
shawl,  at  a  Moorish  pitcher,  a  Persian  rug,  or  a  Chinese 
vase.  We  try  unsuccessfully  to  reproduce  them ;  we  do 
actually  reproduce  the  ceramic  ware  of  the  i6th  century, 
and  glory  in  it;  while  we  vainly  strive  to  copy  the 
mediaeval  stained-glass  windows,  and  are  driven  to 
confess  that  a  people  who  flourished  before  the  founda- 
tion of  Rome  were  capable  of  designing  a  gold  setting 
for  a  brooch  which  puts  all  our  barbarous  efforts  to 
shame. 

The  spread  of  art  is  one  thing;  the  advance  is  an- 
other. With  our  eyes  open,  it  would  be  vain  to  deny 
that  throughout  the  kingdom  a  new  taste  has  arisen, 
and  a  desire  among  all  classes  of  the  people  to  appro- 
priate some  form  of  art  is  evident.  But  taste  implies 
only  accuracy  of  judgment,  not  that  power  of  execu- 
tion which  follows  in  its  wake.  The  taste  of  the  man 
who  knows  is  not  that  of  the  man  who  does. 

The  first-named  may  be  considered  as  a  bon  vivant, 
who  is  fond  of  the  dishes  before  him,  and  distinguishes 
nicely  what  is  savoury  and  delicious,  or  flat  and  insipid 
in  the  ingredients  of  each ;  while  the  second  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  cook,  who,  from  knowing  what  things 
will  mix  well  together,  and  distinguishing  by  a  nice 
taste,  when  he  has  arrived  at  that  happy  result,  is  able 
to  compose  such  exquisite  mixtures. 

In  the  construction  and  ornamentation  of  furniture, 
as  of  buildings,  grounds,  clothing,  and  of  everything1 


112  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

else  of  a  material  character,  external  to  ourselves,  sev- 
eral things  are  to  be  considered  in  their  relation  to  our 
needs,  comfort,  and  enjoyment.  The  mere  necessaries 
of  life  are  really  very  few,  though  even  these  may  be 
multiplied  by  habit,  education,  and  circumstance.  The 
man  of  thorough  culture  and  high  civilization  certainly 
needs  many  things  which  the  savage  can  do  without  and 
which  would  be  even  an  incumbrance  to  him.  But  if 
these,  increased  in  number  as  they  are  by  artificial  cir- 
cumstances, are  fully  supplied,  we  are  not,  and  ought 
not  to  be,  satisfied.  We  may  and  should  consider  what 
is  adapted  to  promote  our  comfort  and  gratify  our 
taste,  ministering  appropriately,  in  both  directions,  to 
our  enjoyment.  For  our  present  purpose  and  in  connec- 
tion with  cabinet  and  upholstery  work,  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  consider  three  things — Novelty,  Taste  and 
Utility. 

i.  Novelty.— This  is  always  a  source  of  pleasure, 
affording  a  healthful  excitement  to  the  mind.  This  is 
the  reason  of  the  frequently  sudden  and  extreme  changes 
in  fashion,  of  the  desire  to  visit  localities  and  scenes 
which  are  new  and  strange  to  us,  and  of  the  effort  to 
secure  for  the  gratification  of  all  the  senses  ever  new 
means  of  pleasure  and  excitement.  The  conservative 
critic  may  find  fault  with  this  universal  tendency  to  in- 
novation, but  it  will  excite  and  exert  its  influence  so 
long  as  the  human  mind  tires  of  sameness,  and  seeks 
for  change.  We  desire  repose  and  permanency  of  con- 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


113 


Louis  SEIZE  DETAII 
Plate  IH 


114  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

ditions  and  surroundings  only  when  we  have  ceased  to 
acquire  and  develop,  and  our  powers  have  begun  to  de- 
cline with  the  coming  on  of  old  age.  This  quality  of 
novelty  is  one  which  all  who  would  cater  for  the  popu- 
lar taste  and,  by  so  doing,  secure  and  maintain  a  suc- 
cessful business,  must  aim  at  in  connection  with  other 
qualities  of  excellence.  It  is  also  unquestionably  true 
that  the  desire  and  effort  for  novelty  leads  sometimes  to 
the  adoption  of  styles  and  ornaments  which  are  unsym- 
metrical  and  incongruous,  and  though  striking  and 
sometimes  even  almost  pleasing  to  those  who  crave  that 
which  is  startling  and  outre,  they  will  greatly  offend 
good  taste.  There  are  certain  established  principles 
which  are  the  basis  of  all  correct  procedure,  and  any 
rule  of  mechanical  practice,  or  even  what  has  come  to  be 
an  established  custom  may  be  departed  from  or  neg- 
lected, so  that  there  is  no  infringement  of  these  fixed 
principles,  among  which  may  be  named  fitness,  utility, 
propriety.  If,  in  seeking  novelty,  the  artist-mechanic 
introduces  that  which  is  in  violation  of  the  principles  of 
unity  and  harmony,  he  will  forfeit  his  claim  to  be  called 
in  any  sense  an  artist.  Let  him  rather  search  for  the 
union  of  novelty  with  other  beauties,  with  a  constant 
consideration  of  a  reference  to  fundamental  princi- 
ples, and  to  this  end  it  will  be  well  that  he  should  thor- 
oughly study  the  details  of  the  works  of  ancient  art, 
whether  of  the  Gothic  and  other  mediaeval  styles,  or  of 
the  more  remote  classical.  From  these  may  be  gathered 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  115 

suggestions  which,  by  exact  reproduction  or  suitable 
combination,  will  afford  designs,  which  may  be  applied 
to  modern  uses  with  excellent  effect  for  internal  finish- 
ing and  furniture. 

2.  We  consider,  in  the  next  place,  the  element  of 
Taste  in  construction  and  ornamentation.  It  has  been 
well  said  that  "art  can  lend  to  an  object  a  value,  greater 
than  that  of  the  material  and  workmanship  of  which  it 
consists,  even  when  the  object  is  formed  of  precious  ma- 
terials, as  of  rare  marbles,  scarce  woods,  or  'silver  or 
gold.'  "  And,  where  the  material  is  of  less  intrinsic 
value,  yet  more  will  depend  on  art  and  the  taste  dis- 
played in  figure  and  ornament.  The  beautiful,  the  taste- 
ful has  a  commercial  value — a  remark  as  true  of  the 
goods  named  in  the  opening  sentence  of  this  article,  as 
of  those  in  any  line  of  manufacture.  It  follows,  then, 
that  the  manufacturer,  who  can  in  the  highest  degree 
secure  that  the  productions  of  his  establishment  shall 
be  in  the  greatest  degree  tasteful,  and  worthy  to  be 
styled  beautiful,  will  in  this  fact  secure  no  mean  advan- 
tage in  the  busy  arena  of  competition.  Expenditure  in 
the  employment  of  designers  who  shall  be  true  artists, 
even  though  it  may  seem  hardly  necessary  or  profitable, 
may  prove  to  be  really  wise  in  principle,  and  most  satis- 
factory in  results.  The  workman  also  may,  with  great 
benefit  to  himself,  study  these  works  thus  greatly  en- 
hancing the  value  of  his  labor,  and  become  more  than 
a  mechanic,  for  he  that  can,  in  a  novel  form  or  one  that 


116  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

is  original  with  himself,  form  a  chair  or  a  table,  which, 
either  as  a  whole  or  in  its  details,  is  really  tasteful — ''a 
thing  of  beauty" — is  truly  an  artist.  If  he  has  the 
laudable  ambition  in  this  manner  to  rise  above  his  fel- 
lows, let  him  acquaint  himself  with  the  laws  of  .beauty, 
so  that  he  shall  be  able  at  once  to  see  the  difference,  and 
the  reason  of  it,  between  the  beautiful  and  the  ugly,  the 
graceful  and  the  deformed,  the  refined  and  the  coarse. 
Let  him  study  the  works  of  art  of  all  ages,  in  the  great 
variety  of  subjects  to  which  art  has  been  applied,  and  he 
will  not  only  have  opened  to  him  new  and  most  fruitful 
sources  of  pleasures,  but  will  add,  to  mere  skill  in  the 
use  of  tools,  the  development  of  a  talent  that  shall  com- 
mand its  price. 

3.  The  other  point  which  we  proposed  to  consider 
was — Utility.  This  may  appear  to  be  independent  in 
some  measure  of  the  considerations  before  named,  yet 
a  manifest  adaptation  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  de- 
signed will  be  an  element  in  the  decision  of  the  question 
whether  it  is  tasteful  or  not.  Such  is  the  constitution 
of  the  human  mind  that  what  might,  aside  from  any 
consideration  of  its  use,  seem  to  be  without  form  or 
comeliness,  assumes  a  certain  appearance  of  beauty, 
when  it  seems  to  be  precisely  fitted  to  the  convenience  of 
the  user.  It  is  also  clear  that  the  purpose  for  which  an 
object  is  intended  should  be  met  in  its  structure  and 
form,  and  no  adjunct,  for  the  sake  merely  of  decoration, 
should  be  permitted  to  interfere  with  its  utility,  or  be 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


117 


inconsistent  with  the  position  which  it  occupies  in  rela- 
tion to  the  whole  subject  or  article.  The  material 
should  be  studied  with  its  adaptability  to  those  forms 

CHAIR  or  QUEEN  HATASU 

WHO    LIVED    1600  VEAR5BC 


Figure  60 

which  are  essential  to  the  use  of  the  article  which  is  to 
be  manufactured.  It  should  not  be  assumed  that,  be- 
cause certain  forms  and  decorations  may  be  appropriate 
to  one  material,  they  would  be  equally  adapted  to.  and 
look  equally  well  in,  another  material  entirely  different 
in  its  character.  One  of  the  essentials  of  a  good  design 


1A£  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

in  industrial  art  is  the  adaptation  of  the  natural  charac- 
teristics of  the  materials  in  which  the  design  is  to  be 
realized.  The  form,  also,  must  in  every  case  subserve 
the  purpose  for  which  the  article  is  to  be  made,  the  lines 
being  as  graceful  and  as  true  in  the  relative  proportions 
of  the  parts  as  will  be  consistent  with  the  convenience  of 
the  person  who  may  use  the  article.  When,  however, 
the  objection  is  made  to  a  chair  or  to  a  lounge  that  one 
cannot  sit  or  rest  easily  and  comfortably  upon  it,  it  is 
not  a  sufficient  answer  that  the  form  of  the  one  is  grace- 
ful and  all  its  lines  those  of  beauty,  and  that  the  other  is 
tasteful  in  design,  and  that  in  material  and  covering 
there  is  harmony  both  of  proportions  and  of  colors. 
They  are  articles  not  to  be  looked  at — not  that  merely 
or  chiefly — but  to  be  used,  and  in  their  very  form 
should  be  suggestive  of  rest,  refreshment,  repose. 
Other  illustrations  might  be  given  of  this  point ;  these, 
however,  will  suffice  to  illustrate  the  position  that,  when- 
ever Utility  is  sacrificed  to  novelty  or  to  ornamental  ap- 
pearance, however  pretty,  the  article  is  badly  designed, 
and  the  art  or  skill  exercised  upon  it  has  been  practi- 
cally thrown  away. 

Words  are  more  or  less  indefinite  in  their  meaning, 
and  admit  of  wider  and  more  comprehensive  transla- 
tion, according  to  their  context  with  other  words,  or 
their  association  with  ideas  previously  existing  in  the 
minds  of  their  hearers.  Among  them  all,  there  are  per- 
haps none  more  difficult  to  explain  than  the  word  style, 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  119 

by  \Yebster,  we  shall  find  how  large  is  its  range,  how 
wide  its  divergence  from  any  center  that  can  be  marked 
out  for  it.  Walker  puts  among  other  things  as  its  sig- 
nification "manner  of  writing,"  with  regard  to  lan- 
guage; manner  of  speaking,  appropriate  to  particular 
character;  title,  appellation.  All  this  may  be  right;  at 
any  rate  is  enough  for  him  who  is  not  required  to  go 
into  lengthy  definitions,  but  merely  to  throw  out  such 
suggestions  as  will,  when  united  with  others,  be  the 
seed  of  future  comprehension. 

I  think  we  may  acknowledge  style  to  be  the  instru- 
ment of  power  by  which  we  convey  emphasis  of  expres- 
sion in  our  work,  and  render  intelligible  forms  which 
would  otherwise  be  both  meaningless  and  purposeless. 
There  is  another  word  which  artists  are  in  the  habit  of 
associating,  and  even  confusing  with  style,  Manner, 
which  when  repeated  again  and  again  is  designated  as 
mannerism,  a  feature  by  which  we  are  too  often  enabled 
to  distinguish  the  productions  of  one  man,  and  even  of 
one  age,  from  those  of  another;  but  there  is  a  wide  dif- 
ference between  it  and  style.  Style  advances  whatever 
it  is  attached  to,  makes  its  intentions  more  evident,  in- 
creases the  force  of  its  expression,  as  well  as  frees  it 
from  impurities  which  in  no  way  help  the  object  it  has 
in  view;  while  manner,  or  mannerism,  on  the  contrary, 
serves  no  good  purpose,  is,  in  fact,  most  frequently 
merely  the  mirror  in  which  the  artist,  or  may  be  the 
period  at  which  he  lived,  is  unconsciously  reflected. 


120  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

That  style  and  manner  are  frequently  so  mingled  one 
with  another  as  to  render  it  difficult  to  separate  them,  or 
to  distinguish  which  is  which,  I  will  confess;  but  the 
simple  text  I  have  here  put  to  you  will,  I  think,  if  care- 
fully attended  to,  though  perhaps  not  serving  as  an 
exact  definition,  show  what  is  style  and  what  is  not,  and 
even  tell  in  what  proportion  mannerism,  if  any,  is  in- 
troduced. 

This  question  the  student  will  do  well  to  constantly 
consider,  as  it  tends  to  elevate  what  he  may  send  forth, 
and  keep  it  free  from  much  that  is  detrimental  to  excel- 
lence, though  at  the  same  time  highly  seductive  to  the 
young  mind.  I  wish  to  be  the  more  impressive  in  this 
advice,  because  I  cannot  help  fancying  that  at  this  mo- 
ment there  is  a  more  than  usual  quantity  of  mannerism 
passing  for  style  in  the  world  of  Art,  and  that  students 
are  mistaking  one  for  the  other,  and  running  after  the 
wrong  thing,  by  affecting  peculiarities  and  imitating 
weaknesses  belonging  to,  past  ages,  and  quite  out  of 
place  in  the  present  day.  I  am  not  saying  this  in  any 
invidious  spirit;  on  the  contrary,  I  am  ready  to  ac- 
knowledge that  many  fine  works  are  put  forth  among 
us,  that  carry  out  with  powerful  emphasis  the  spirit  that 
is  within  them,  simply  because  the  treatment  of  even; 
part  is  in  unison  with  that  spirit,  and  serves  to  elucidate 
the  meaning  intended  by  the  sculptor ;  but  the  weed  of 
mannerism  is  growing  at  the  same  time  among  us — 
mannerism,  I  fancy,  not  derived  even  from  the  best 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  121 

time  of  Art ;  and  I  feel  that  it-  is  my  duty  to  protest 
against  it. 

Style  is  the  gold  that  is  the  mark  of  genius,  and  man- 
nerism the  color  by  which  you  distinguish  from  whence 
it  comes.  All  that  relates  to  style  is  derived  from  the 
most  profound  knowledge. 

With  some  style  implies  simple  excellence  of  treat- 
ment in  contradiction  to  the  absence  of  that  quality,  and 
they  read  it  as  a  mannerism  always  the  same,  and  equal- 
ly applicable  to  the  carrying  out  in  Art  of  all  subjects — 
they  talk  of  a  Classical  style  and  think  this  is  the  only 
adjunct  that  can  properly  be  attached  to  it.  There  are 
other  meanings  to  the  word  than  this,  or  rather  its 
meaning  is  capable  of  great  extension.  There  is  the 
Severe  style,  perhaps  pretty  much,  though  not  quite  the 
same  thing  as  the  Classical;  then  there  is  the  Gothic 
style,  which,  clinging  to  a  certain  extent  to  the  Classi- 
cal, has  its  own  peculiar  mode  of  expression.  Then, 
again,  the  simple  and  the  Florid  styles,  which,  it  is  not 
too  much  to  say,  are  directly  opposed  to  each  other; 
and  the  Domestic  style,  which  contradicts  and  entirely 
sets  at  defiance  the  Classical ;  and  we  might  even  add  to 
them  the  Grotesque  style,  which  hardly  claims  relation- 
ship with  any  of  them.  We  will  endeavour  to  explain 
the  difference  between  them  and  the  requirements  of 
each. 

The  classical  style  would  be  the  line  we  should  adopt 
in  our  work  when  the  subject  to  be  treated  belongs  to 


122  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

the  classical  days  of  old — when  it  associates  itself  with 
the  grand  old  bards  whose  distant  footsteps  echo 
through  the  corridors  of  time,  or  whose  conceptions  are 
of  that  lofty  nature  that  they  admit  of  no  minute  detail, 
or  dwelling  on  petty  things.  Our  illustrations  of  them 
should  then  be  in  the  same  style,  severe  and  simple,  not 


Figure  61 

like  everyday  Nature,  but  like  a  something  which  we 
all  of  us,  more  or  less,  endeavour  to  conceive,  and  even 
long  to  be  about  us;  but  which  can  only  exist  ideally 
within  ourselves,  more  or  less  clear,  according  as  we  are 
capable  of  entering  into  the  feeling  of  the  poet,  or  of 
becoming  part  of  it  ourselves. 

The  error  modern  imitators  of  Greek  Art  generally 
commit  is  exaggerating  the  tendency  to  straight  lines 
and  the  repetition  of  them. 

The  Gothic  style,  as  we  have  said  before,  retains 
some  connection  with  the  Classic  by  preserving  its  quiet 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  123 

simplicity  as  well  as  its  grace  of  line.  That  it  has  much 
of  mannerism  cannot  be  denied,  arising,  often  from  the 
mistake  of  the  workers  in  it,  who  have  fancied  that 
rudeness  and  exaggeration  of  form  necessarily  be- 
longed to  it.  This  peculiarity,  however,  appertains  only 
to  the  more  decayed  periods,  and  not  to  the  time  when 
it  rose  into  beauty  and  fine  art,  as  in  the  I3th  century. 
That  it  had  then  and  has  now  a  style  of  its  own  is 
certain,  for  it  had  to  express  and  does  express  the  tone 
and  feeling  of  a  religion  quite  distinct  from  that  of  the 
Greeks — less  earthly  or  sensuous,  more  pure  and  ethe- 
real, more  divine.  We  are  now  speaking,  of  course,  of 
monumental  and  religious  Art,  the  only  things  in  which 
the  Gothic  is  appropriate.  In  a  domestic  or  homely 
sphere  it  always  appears  to  be  out  of  place  and  unsuited 
to  the  purpose. 

The  Gothics  were  greater  architects  than  the  Greeks, 
in  a  way,  but  it  would  be  idle  to  assert  that  they  were  as 
good  sculptors;  there  is  no  reason,  however,  why  the 
finest  works  should  not  be  combined  with  the  Gothic 
style,  for  they  can  be  made  quite  compatible  with  it. 

Even  the  Florid  style,  which,  from  our  dislike  to  it 
as  somewhat  debasing  Art,  we  feel  much  inclined  to 
stigmatize  with  the  title  of  mannerism,  is  sometimes  ad- 
missible; in  fact,  must  be  acknowledge  to  be,  under 
some  circumstances,  the  most  appropriate — for  instance 
in  the  decoration  of  the  theatre,  the  ball-room,  and 
other  places  of  amusement.  Surely  when  so  placed  it  is 


124  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

more  in  unison  than  any  other  with  that  elevation  of  the 
spirits  which  is  supposed  to  pervade  the  scene. 

The  severe,  unaffected  Classical  style  would  be  a 
damper  on  our  enjoyment  under  such  circumstances, 
when  we  are  not  looking  coldly  on  at  real  life,  but  tak- 
ing, so  to  speak,  a  glance  at  it  through  a  colored  glass 
or  our  imagination. 

Shakespeare,  in  his  poetic  drama  of  "The  Tempest," 
seems  to  give  us  a  view  of  it  in  this  florid  style.  He  ele- 
vates by  his  poetical  imagination  the  scenes  he  portrays, 
and  so  leads  us  away  into  a  realm  of  ideality  more 
florid,  more  enjoyable  than  the  reality  we  are  compelled 
every  day  to  take  part  in.  You  must  do  the  same 
with  your  art,  or  at  any  rate  furnish  your  portion  in 
that  enjoyment,  and  you  will  do  it  best  by  bending  it  to 
the  same  feeling.  ' 

It  is  under  such  influences  that  high  and  ornamental 
sculpture  most  frequently  join  hands  together,  and  are 
present,  not  as  real  personages,  or  as  representatives  of 
particular  ideas,  but  as  decorations  of  a  scene  created 
for  the  transient  pleasure  of  the  moment.  Your  lines 
may  now  flow  with  greater  freedom,  your  figures  per- 
form their  parts  with  less  reserve  than  on  other  occa- 
sions, your  style  may  in  short  be  florid.  It  is  here,  if 
anywhere,  that  color  may  be  introduced  into  your 
statues,'  as  well  as  into  the  ornaments  about  them.  The 
danger  is  of  their  becoming  sensuous;  but  the  refine- 
ment, whether  of  design  or  execution,  which  you  will 


THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  125 

introduce,  will  keep  that  down  in  the  same  \vay  as  the 
great  dramatist  has  done  in  the  fairy  tale  I  have  just 
alluded  to.  There  are  scenes  and  characters  in  that 
which  connect  it  with  the  lower  features  of  humanity, 
and  so  preserve  a  relationship  to  the  real,  which  no 
imaginative  work,  whether  of  Art  or  Literature,  should 
be  entirely  without ;  whilst  there  are  others,  the  creation 
of  poetic  fancy,  which  serve  to  lift  us  upwards  into  the 
realms  of  ideality ;  and  make  us  the  better  for  the  en- 
joyment we  receive.  You  will  say  we  are  soaring  into 
the  region  of  rhodomontade  and  losing  the  practical; 
but  we  may  tell  you  that  you  need  not  feel  yourself  so 
strictly  bound  by  rule  in  this  style  as  in  the  others ;  your 
forms  are  not  required  to  be  so  true  to  the  modesty  of 
Nature  as  they  are  generally ;  they  may  be  made  more 
effective  by  a  departure  from  truth,  or  at  any  rate  an 
exaggeration  of  fact.  With  those  proportions  which 
Nature  has  given  to  different  objects  of  her  creation 
you  may  deal  freely,  altering  them  to  suit  your  own 
purposes  of  expression  or  effect.  We  will  put  before 
you  Cellini,  as  the  highest  example  in  this  walk  of  Art. 
Strictly  speaking  he  is  an  ornamentalist ;  but  he  some- 
times attempts  high  Art,  where  there  is  often  with  him 
a  lack  of  correct  proportion — for  instance,  in  his  statue 
of  Perseus,  where  the  over  ornamentation  hardly  hides 
from  a  practical  eye  the  want  of  proper  balance  of  parts. 
Sometimes,  indeed,  in  his  metal  works  he  uses  his  free- 
dom as  a  license  which  serves  the  style  to  which  his 


126  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

work  belongs,  and  so  answers  the  purpose  he  has  in 
view ;  he  is  rarely,  if  ever,  quite  natural,  though  always 
florid  in  his  style,  and  always  effective. 

It  will  be  impossible  in  a  work  of  this  kind,  to  write 
at  length  on  the  various  styles,  so  we  will  content  our- 
selves with  touching  on  some  of  those  styles  which  seem 
to  have  been  much  in  favor  at  certain  periods.  To  go 
into  this  matter  extensively  would  require  several  vol- 
umes of  greater  dimensions  than  the  present  one. 

As  with  all  the  arts,  crafts  and  sciences,  we  get  all 
our  glimmerings  from,  or  through  the  Egyptians,  so 
everything  pertaining  to  the  earliest  examples  of  furni- 
ture come  to  us  from  that  source. 

Many  people  imagine  that  the  habit  of  sitting  down, 
as  practiced  in  this  country  and  Europe,  is  a  universal 
human  habit,  old  as  the  race  itself,  and  in  no  way  asso- 
ciated with  civilization.  Investigations,  however,  have 
shown  that  the  habit  is  acquired,  and  marks  the  highest 
notch  of  civilization  and  advancement ;  indeed,  it  is  esti- 
mated that  not  more  than  10  per  cent  of  the  human 
family  practice  sitting  on  the  civilized  plan. 

Men  who  do  not  sit  have  two  attitudes  far  resting  ; 
women  use  one  of  their  own.  Squatting  on  the  heel  is 
favored  in  India  and  China.  In  this  position  the  weight 
of  the  body  falls  upon  the  toes,  and  to  keep  the  balance 
comfortably  the  arms  must  hang  over  the  knees,  the 
hands  dangling.  The  cross-legged  attitude  is  general 
from  Siam  eastward,  through  the  Malay  countries.  In 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


127 


the  jungle  men  crouch,  the  knees  raised,  the  arms  folded 
over  them  and  the  chin  resting  on  the  arm.    The  women 


Figure  62 

of  that  region  rest  upon  the  floor  sideways,  thus  throw- 
ing the  weight  on  the  outer  part  of  one  thigh,  not  a 
very  comfortable  posture  to  a  civilized  Caucasian., 


128  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

As  civilization  advanced  in  Egypt  the*  use  of  furni- 
ture became  more  and  more  necessary.  First  the  rulers 
began  with  thrones  and  seats  of  honor  for  the  kings 
and  nobles ;  then  the  rich  merchants  followed,  providing 
themselves  with  furniture  less  costly,  perhaps,  but  equal- 
ly as  useful  as  that  owned  and  used  by  State  officials. 
The  working  classes  and  the  poor  were  doubtless  con- 
tent to  sit  down  on  their  mats  of  papyri  stalks,  under 
the  shelter  of  their  rough  cabins  of  mud.  The  rich  of 
the  dynasties,  dating  from  the  twelfth  to  the  thirtieth, 
furnished  their  houses  with  very  costly  furniture,  which 
consisted  principally  of  rich  beds,  or  couches  with  their 
beds,  or  mattresses,  pillows  and  cushions,  and  wooden 
head-rests,  footstool  stands,  tables  and  chairs,  both  with 
high  and  low  back;  or  folding  stools,  like  the  Greek 
okladias,  boxes  or  chests  for  holding  clothes  and  other 
objects.  From  the  earliest  period  high-backed  and 
other  chairs  were  in  use,  and  at  the  time  of  the  eight- 
eenth and  nineteenth  dynasties  were  imported  as  tribute 
from  Ethiopia.  Pillows  of  stone,  wood  and  other  ob- 
jects were  also  of  great  antiquity,  and  are  represented 
in  coffins  of  the  sixth  and  following  dynasties.  They 
exhibit  a  great  variety  of  shape,  consisting  of  a  curved 
semi-elliptical  portion,  adapted  to  hold  the  back  of  the 
head,  supported  by  a  column  or  other  contrivance  rest- 
ing on  a  base  or  pedestal.  For  furniture,  various  woods 
were  employed — ebony,  acacia  or  soft  cedar,  sycamore 
and  others  of  species  not  determined;  ivory,  both  of 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  129 

the  hippopotamus  and  the  elephant,  and  used  for  inlay- 
ing, as  also  were  glass  pastes,  and  specimens  of  mar- 
quetry are  not  uncommon.  In  the  paintings  in  the 
tombs  gorgeous  pieces  of  gilded  furniture  are  depicted. 
For  cushions  and  mattresses,  linen  cloth,  feathers  of 
water  fowl  and  colored  stuffs  appear  to  have  been  used, 
while  seats  have  plaited  bottoms  of  linen  cord  or  tanned 
and  dyed  leather  thrown  over  them.  Sometimes  the 
skins  of  panthers  were  used  for  the  purpose.  On  the 
whole  an  Egyptian  house  was  lightly  furnished  and  not 
encumbered  with  so  many  articles  as  are  in  use  at  the 
present  day.  For  carpets  they  used  mats  of  plain  fiber, 
on  which  children  and  servants  sat,  or  rather  squatted. 

The  chest  shown  at  Fig.  58  seems  to  have  been  a 
very  popular  piece  of  furniture,  as  numbers  are  found 
depicted  on  the  tombs  and  monuments.  The  bedstead 
and  ivory  headrest  shown  in  Fig.  59  were  also  common 
articles  of  furniture  with  the  rulers  and  with  the  rich, 
and  many  of  them  were  finely  upholstered  with  hand- 
some and  costly  fabrics. 

The  fragments  of  a  chair  shown  in  Fig.  60 — are 
still  in  existence,  and  preserved  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  show  the  remains  of  the  veritable  chair  used  as  a 
throne  by  Queen  Hatasu,  a  royal  lady  who  made  things 
lively  for  a  while  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  some  1600 
years  before  Christ  and  twenty-nine  years  before  Moses. 
This  is,  so  far  as  we  know,  the  most  venerable  piece  of 
wooden  furniture  in  the  world.  There  is  in  the  Louvre, 


130  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  131 

France,  a  metal  chair,  decorated  and  incrusted  with 
mosaics,  that  is  older  by  400  years  than  the  one  ex- 
hibited. Hatasu's  chair  or  throne,  or  rather  what  re- 
mains of  it — as  it  is  in  a  dilapidated  condition  and  has 
to  be  secured  with  brass  bands — is  made  of  what  ap- 
pears to  be  lignum-vitse,  is  of  a  dark  color,  like  coctis 
wood,  and  is  inlaid  over  all  the  carved  portions  with 
gold  plates.  The  two  sacred  serpents,  shown  on  the 
two  uprights  at  the  back,  however,  are  not  treated  so, 
but,  as  the  detail  illustrates,  with  little  silver  rings  sunk 
all  over  them ;  probably  a  conventional  rendering  of  the 
snake  skin. 

The  five  articles  of  furniture  exhibited  in  the  group, 
Fig.  61,  showing  a  stool,  stand  for  a  vase,  workman's 
stool,  head-rest  and  vase  on  a  stand,  are  from  photos 
of  the  originals  in  the  British  Museum.  They  are 
Egyptian  examples  and  are  more  than  3000  years  old. 
Nothing  can  be  more  suitable  for  its  purpose  than  the 
"workman's  stool."  The  seat  is  precisely  like  that  of  a 
modern  kitchen  chair  (all  wood),  slightly  concaved  to 
promote  the  sitter's  comfort,  and  supported  by  three 
legs  curving  outwards.  This  is  simple,  convenient  and 
admirably  adapted  to  long  service.  Besides  these  ex- 
amples, there  are  in  the  museum  several  seats  formed 
with  cross  legs  on  the  principle  of  our  common  camp- 
stool,  and  all  are  well  made  and  have  the  lower  parts 
of  their  legs  carved  as  heads  of  geese,  with  inlayings  of 


132  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


Plate  IV 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  133 

ivory  to  assist  the  design  and  give  richness  to  the  exe- 
cution. 

There  are  in  the  various  museums  many  articles  of 
luxury  and  comfort  taken  from  Egyptian  tombs,  which 
demonstrate  the  extraordinary  state  of  civilization  and 
culture  attained  by  these  ancient  people,  that  aid  us  in 
forming  a  picture  of  their  domestic  habits.  Boxes, 
chests,  tables  and  shelves  in  great  variety  have  been 
unearthed,  "some  inlaid  with  various  woods  and  with 
little  squares  of  bright  turquoise  blue  pottery  let  in  as  a 
relief;  others  veneered  with  ivory;  wooden  spoons 
carved  in  most  intricate  designs,  of  which  one,  repre- 
senting a  girl  among  lotus  flowers,  is  a  work  of  great 
artistic  skill;  boats  of  wood,  head-rests  and  carved 
models  of  parts  of  houses  and  granaries,  together  with 
writing  materials,  different  kinds  of  tools  and  imple- 
ments and  quantities  of  personal  ornaments  and  requi- 
sites." 

Indeed  the  more  we  know  of  the  Egyptians  the  more 
we  are  led  to  believe  that  long  before  Greece  or  Rome 
were  known  they  enjoyed  a  remarkably  high  state  -of 
civilization  and  learning,  with  all  their  accompanying 
advantages. 

A  figure  given  (in  group)  exhibit  two  very  old 
chairs  and  a  couple  of  Egyptian  chairmakers  at  work, 
with  some  of  the  tools  and  materials  scattered  about  on 
the  floor.  Here  we  see  a  square,  a  couple  of  adzes,  and 
a  drill  in  the  hands  of  one  of  the  workmen,  who  is  bor- 


134  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


«JP 


Plate  V 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  135 

ing  a  hole  in  the  chair  by  using  a  bow  to  turn  the  drill. 
These  tools  are  very  much  like  the  tools  in  use  today. 
Several  finished  chair  legs  are  seen  on  the  wall.  This 
carving  on  the  walls  of  a  tomb,  was  executed  between 
two  and  three  thousand  years  ago. 

Furniture  used  by  the  Chaldeans,  the  Assyrians, 
Babylonians,  Hebrews  and  other  old  nations,  was  of 
similar  type  to  the  Egyptian,  as  may  be  seen  by  refer- 
ring to  a  number  of  illustrations  shown,  also  examples 
of  Greek  and  Roman  furniture  are  given. 

Some  of  the  chairs  shown  are  fine  examples,  and  both 
are  constructed  on  Egyptian  and  other  lines.  Later 
styles,  or  rather  examples  of  later  styles,  are  shown  in 
Figs.  19,  20,  the  coronation  chair,  28,  and  others  shown 
in  the  first  chapter. 

The  Gothic  style  in  furniture  began  during  the  reign 
of  Louis  VIII,  and  St.  Louis  (Louis  IX) — 1223-1270; 
the  style  growing  out  of  the  Byzantine  style  of  Archi- 
tecture, and  was  introduced  by  the  artists  and  crafts- 
men brought  to  France  from  Constantinople  by  the  re- 
turning crusaders. 

The  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  had  been  re- 
markable for  a  general  development  of  commerce ;  mer- 
chants had  traded  extensively  with  the  East,  and  had 
grown  opulent,  and  their  homes  naturally  displayed 
signs  of  wealth  and  comfort  that  in  former  times  had 
been  impossible  to  any  but  princes  and  rich  nobles. 

Towards  the  fourteenth  century,  there  was  in  high 


136  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  137 

quarters  a  taste  for  high  and  rich  colorings  and  we  have 
the  testimony  of  an  old  writer  who  describes  the  interior 
of  the  Hotel  de  Beheme,  which,  after  being  the  resi- 
dence of  several  great  personages,  was  given  by  Charles 
VI.  in  1388  to  his  brother  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  "In 
this  palace  was  a  room  used  by  the  Duke,  hung  with 
cloth  of  gold,  embroidered  with  windmills.  There  were 
besides  rich  carpets  with  gold  flowers,  cushions  of  cloth 
of  gold,  and  summer  carpets  of  Arragon  leather." 

As  we  approach  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  we 
find  canopies  added  to  the  "chairs,"  which  were  carved 
in  oak  and  chestnut  and  sometimes  elaborately  gilded 
and  picked  out  in  color.  The  canopied  seats  were  bulky 
and  throne-like  constructions,  and  were  abandoned 
toward  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  for  a  somewhat 
smaller  and  less  massive  seat. 

The  high-backed  chair  shown  in  Fig.  62  is  a  sample 
of  this  style.  Chairs,  tables,  beds  and  fittings  were  all 
made  in  this  style  and  the  interiors  were  rich  in  carv- 
ings, massive  but  stiff  and  informal.  Plate  I,  exhibits  a 
chamber  in  this  style  of /the  period  of  Louis  XI,  which 
shows  a  bed  and  several  pieces  of  furniture.  Fig.  63 
shows  a  German  chamber  of  a  somewhat  later  date. 
The  French  carved  bed  with  canopy,  Fig.  64,  is  of  the 
period  of  Louis  XIV.  It  is  an  example  that  was  much 
followed,  and  the  fashion  lasted  well  into  the  period  of 
Louis  the  XVI.  A  gradual  change  in  French  furniture 
took  place  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI,  and  the  orna- 


138 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


GERMAN    RENAISSANCE. 

Plate  VH 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  139 

mentation  assumed  the  style  as  shown  in  Plate  II. 
French  furniture  was  continually  changing  in  style,  and 
we  have  early  and  late  French,  Louis  Seize,  and  Em- 
pire styles,  each  of  these  having  their  changes,  imita- 
tions and  modifications. 

Gilt  wood,  Chinese  lacquers  and  their  imitations  by 
means  of  the  varnish  to  which  Robert  Martin  gave  his 
name,  are  the  preferred  materials.  Bronze  mountings, 
set  in  the  panels,  and  cut  out  in  highly  elaborate  pat- 
terns, decorate  the  cabinets  of  Caffieri.  The  marquetry 
work  of  Boulle,  made  to  conform  with  the  prevailing 
style  is  continued  by  the  heirs  of  the  celebrated  work- 
man. 

The  ornamentation  that  is  peculiar  to  the  style  of 
Louis  XV.  modifies  the  old  elements  and  introduces 
new  ones.  A  narrow  but  very  much  lengthened  acan- 
thus takes  the  place  of  the  rich  and  broad  acanthus  of 
the  Louis  XIV. 

This  new  form  becomes  associated  with  shells,  ro- 
caille,  perforated  stones.  The  development  of  the 
natural  science,  interest  in  which  is  manifested  by  the 
gathering  of  collections  of  shells,  etc.,  has  a  share,  to- 
gether with  the  popularity  of  Dresden  China,  in  bring- 
ing about  the  triumph  of  the  style  rocaille. 

An  interior  of  the  style  Louis  XV.  also  includes  the 
decorative  Chinese  fancies,  the  carved  elephants  of  Caf- 
fieri's  clocks;  then  the  characters  of  Italian  comedy, 
reminiscences  of  Watteau,  and  the  little  love  sports  *&& 


140  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


141 


with  pretty  much  everywhere,  in  Tapestry,  ceramic  jew- 
elry, snuff-boxes,  bon-bonnieres,  fans,  transom  panels, 
screens,  and  the  many  quaint  and  curious  fancies  pe- 
culiar to  that  era. 


Figure  65 

The  cabinets,  Figs.  65  and  66,  and  carved  walnut 
bed,  Fig.  67,  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  are 
good  examples  of  the  work  of  those  periods  and  offer 
many  suggestions  to  designers,  carvers  and  workmen. 
The  bed  shown  in  Fig.  68,  was  used  by  Pope  Pius  VII, 
at  Fontainbleau,  and  is  rich  in  decoration  and  costly 
drapery. 


142  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  66 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


143 


Plate  III  shows  a  whole  series  of  details  in  Louis 
Seize  style,  from  which  the  cabinet-maker  may  garner 


Figure  67 


many  good  things  for  nearly  all  purposes.  Fig.  69 
shows  a  cabinet  in  this  style  which  is  elaborately  fin- 
ished and  decorated  with  gold.  It  is  a  thing  of  beauty 


144  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

and  was  purchased  for  the  museum  at  a  cost  of  $7,500. 
The  table  shown  at  Fig.  70  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the 
style  Louis  Seize  and  is  beautifully  carved.  Fig.  71 
shows  a  good  old-fashioned  commode  ornamented  lav- 
ishly with  gilt,  bronze  and  inlay ;  the  Louis  Seize  chairs 
illustrated  in  Fig.  72  are  good  examples  of  the  period. 
They  are  finished  in  blue  and  gold  and  are  very  dainty 
pieces  of  furniture.  These  illustrations  are  drawn  from 
photos  of  the  originals  now  in  the  Cluny  museum.  A 
most  beautiful  piece  of  work  is  a  little  ebony  cabinet, 
Fig  73 — now  in  the  Kensington  museum,  which  was 
made  by  the  celebrated  French  cabinet-maker,  Boulle. 
It  is  beautifully  inlaid  in  the  most  exquisite  designs  and 
made  nearly  two  hundred  years  ago. 

Boulle,  not  to  mention  many  others  of  the  earlier 
period,  was  an  artist ;  he  conceived  his  own  designs,  he 
drew  them  out  (the  patent  is  given  him  in  his  name  not 
only  as  a  cabinet-maker,  but  as  an  architect  and  sculp- 
tor), he  executed  everything  with  his  own  hands;  he 
was  a  chaser,  engraver,  and  gilder ;  he  was,  as  we  see, 
a  man  of  cultivated  tastes  into  the  bargain."  When  we 
add  to  his  merit  as  a  designer,  and  a  delicate  appreciator 
of  the  work  of  others,  his  merit  as  a  good  workman 
whose  productions,  without  need  of  repair,  are  as  stout 
in  the  present  day,  after  two  hundred  years  of  use  as 
they  were  the  day  they  were  made,  it  may  be  fairly  con- 
ceded, even  by  the  sternest  rigorist,  that  Andre  Boulle 
worked  in  what  is  understood  as  the  true  spirit.  Not 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  145 


Figure  68 


146  THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

only  in  its  construction,  but  in  every  feature,  in  the 
choice  of  the  materials,  in  the  chasing  and  gilding  and 
the  marquetry,  his  work  will  be  found  to  be  of  the  most 
honest  kind,  very  different  to  the  modern  rubbish  that 
passes  under  the  name,  where  false  tortoise  shell,  made 
of  horn  or  gelatine ;  false  mother-of-pearl,  box  or  horn 
instead  of  ivory ;  brass  or  even  zinc  lacquered  ornament 
tacked  on  to  the  ill-made  joinery  usurp  the  place  of  true 
work,  whose  only  fault  was  that  it  was  produced  in  a 
period  when  the  traditions  of  art  were  on  the  decline. 
When  Boulle  used  wood  it  was  ebony,  which  the  cabinet 
makers,  his  successors,  on  the  plea  of  its  difficulty  in 
working,  in  taking  the  glue  or  varnish — Boulle  never 
used  varnish — and  other  reasons,  replaced  with  stained 
pear-wood.  In  the  choice  of  his  woods  Boulle  shovred 
the  extremest  care,  and  one  of  his  severest  blows  was 
his  loss,  by  the  fire  that  destroyed  his  collection  of 
prints,  of  a  qauntity  of  rare  woods  which  he  had,  we 
learn  from  the  inventory  he  made  at  the  time,  long 
stored  by  to  season.  The  bronze  he  used  was  honestly 
chiselled  and  chased  and  gilt,  not  lacquered,  and  each 
ornament  was  a  design  not  stamped  out. 

The  secrets  of  Boulle's  skill  may  be  said  to  have  die.l 
with  their  inventor,  for  though  the  traditions  were  con- 
tinued, the  sobriety  and  the  grandiose  style  of  the  master 
will  be  found  to  be  sadly  wanting  in  all  the  work  of  his 
imitators.  So  much  was  this  recognized  that,  through- 
out the  last  century,  in  all  the  sale  catalogues  the  works 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  147 


Figure  69 


148  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

by  Boulle  himself  are  conspicuously  marked,  more  than 
one  collector  made  it  his  specialty  to  gather  specimens 
of  the  great  cabinet  maker's  work. 

Boulle  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-two  (February  29, 
1732)  at  his  house  in  the  Louvre,  and  was  buried  in  the 


Figure  70 

neighboring  church  of  Saint  Germain  L'Auxerrois,  leav- 
ing two  sons  to  combine,  only  in  name  it  is  true,  the 
traditions  which  he  had  in  a  measure  positively  created. 
One  of  the  sons,  employed  at  the  Sevres  manufactory, 
was,  it  would  appear,  the  first  to  introduce,  in  the  decor- 
ation of  furniture,  the  use  of  porcelain. 

Plate  IV  shows  a  couple  of  tables  of  the  style  of 
Louis  XVI,  which  contain  a  number  of  very  useful  sug- 
gestions, suggestions  that  will  be  utilized  in  the  manu- 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  149 


150 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


facture  of  modern  Furniture,  on  similar  lines,  by  some 
little  modifications. 

During  the  Marie  Antoinette  period,  the  most  extrav- 
agant furniture  was  made  and  the  most  extravagant 


Figure  72 

prices  were  paid  for  it,  and  some  very  handsome  speci- 
mens were  turned  out.  The  little  writing  table  shown 
in  Fig.  74,  was  specially  designed  and  made  for  the 
Queen,  and  cost  a  very  large  sum  of  money.  This  table 
is  nowr  in  England  and  was  bought  some  years  ago  for 
$37,000,  an  enormous  amount  of  money  for  so  small  a 
piece  of  furniture.  An  English  \vriter  who  was  at  the 
sale,  in  speaking  of  it,  says :  "It  amused  me  to  notice 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


151 


that  it  required  a  special  attendant  to  guard  this  little 
specimen,  so  many  were  crowding  round  to  inspect  it. 


Fijmre  73 


It  was  literally  mobbed  as  I  tried  to  get  a  glimpse  of  it 
for  my  note  book,  and  the  adjectives  showered  upon  it 
by  the  upper  ten  were  the  most  expressive  I  have  ever 
heard  applied  to  furniture.  It  was  oblong  in  shape,  with 
a  drawer  fitted  with  inkstand,  writing-slide,  and  shelf 
beneath  an  oval  medallion  of  a  trophy,  and  flowers  on 
the  top,  and  trophies  with  four  medallions  round  the 


]52 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


sides.  This  was  stamped  J.  Riesner,  and  branded  un- 
derneath with  cypher  of  Marie  Antoinette  and  Garde 
Meuble  de  la  Reine.  This  really  beautiful  article  of  fur- 


Figure  74 

niture  was  exhibited  in  1862  at  the  South  Kensington 
Loan  Exhibition.  Three  thousand  guineas  was  the  first 
bid  for  it,  but  it  soon  ran  up  to  4,500  guineas,  at  which 
price  some  dispute  arose  as  to  whose  bid  it  was.  This 
was  settled  by  $25,000  being  offered,  and  the  bidding 
continued  till  the  price  reached  $30,500,  when,  amid 
much  applause,  it  became  the  property  of  Mr.  Wer- 


THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  153 


Figure  75 


154  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

theimer.  I  anticipated  that  this  little  gem  would  realize 
a  large  sum,  but  the  amount  obtained  for  it  is  certainly 
fabulous.  I  can  say,  however,  that  the  beauty  of  the 
workmanship  must  be  seen  to  be  believed." 

Fig.  75  illustrates  a  bed  introduced  by  Queen  Marie 
Antoinette.  This  bed  became  quite  popular  for  a  time, 
but  ran  out  of  vogue  during  the  revolution  after  which 
the  Empire  Style  was  introduced,  when  beds  were  spe- 
cially designed  for  warriors,  judges,  statesmen  and  suc- 
cessful leaders;  many  of  the  beds  were  heaps  of  silly 
ornament  and  cumberous  and  rich  draperies.  This  phase 
of  the  Empire  style  did  not  last  long,  however,  but 
gave  place  to  a  more  sensible  practice  of  construction 
and  ornamentation.  The  two  Plates,  V  and  VI,  show 
details  and  ornamentation  in  the  better  days  of  the 
Empire  style.  Plate  V  showing  some  of  the  best  ex- 
amples of  the  period. 

The  French  revolution  brought  with  it  many  good 
things — as  well  as  bad,  and  it  was  really  a  blessing 
in  disguise  in  many  ways  inasmuch  as  it  cleared  the  way 
for  better  things  among^  which  may  be  mentioned  the 
Empire  style  as  represented  in  the  illustrations  and 
Plates  shown  herewith. 

Among  the  many  decorations  in  this  style,  quivers, 
torches,  and  armorial  trophies  were  freely  made  use  of, 
and  this  tendency  to  make  ornament  subservient  to  the 
general  form,  of  which  it  should  always  be  only  the 
complement  and  accessory,  so  far  from  diminishing  in 


THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


155 


156 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


the  next  age,  became  accentuated,  as  the  following 
illustrations  of  "Empire"  will  demonstrate.  It  had 
forced  itself  into  fashion,  and  opened  .up  fresh  fields 


Figure  76 

and  pastures  new  for  the  courageous  decorator.  Its 
promoters  had  gone  to  draw  inspiration  from  the  phil- 
osophical world  of  antiquity,  and  they  studiously  at- 
tempted to  revive  antique  rules,  traditions  and  cus- 
toms, many  of  which  were  inconsistent  with  niodern 
life.  The  broad-backed  chair  (Fig.  76)  makes  a  fine 
looking,  comfortable  seat.  Cleverly  hollowed  out  to 
catch  the  back  and  support  the  shoulders,  it  proffers  the 
acme  of  comfort,  without,  at  the  same  time,  being  stuffy. 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


157 


Passing  to  Fig.  77,  we  find  a  form  of  couch  which 
was  at  one  time  very  popular  in  this  country.  It  re- 
minds one  of  the  old  "high-low"  designs  which  used  to 
be  the  fashion  in  the  "early  fifties,"  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  this  choice  of  a  resting  pad  proves  a  comfort 
to  the  sitter  who  is  dainty  in  the  matter  of  position. 


Figure  77 


This  design,  which  is  without  a  back,  is  evidently  for 
use  rather  than  display.  Before  passing  from  this 
design  we  cannot  help  noticing  the  increased  oppor- 
tunities which  it  gives  to  the  chair  or  settee  frame  maker, 
as  he  has  been  too  much  in  the  habit  of  hiding  his  work 
with  ostentatious  upholstery.  The  small  table  (Fig.  78) 
is  for  decorative  rather  than  useful  purposes.  The  de- 
sign, if  well  executed,  adds  unusual  classic  dignity  to 
the  center  of  a  room,  or  as  a  choice  corner-piece.  This 
belongs  to  the  class  erstwhile  known  as  the  "loo"  table, 
and  has  been  in  the  background  of  late  years.  It  is 


158 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


still  in  vogue  in  its  larger  forms  as  a  dining-table,  and 
those  who  still  possess  one  will  enthusiastically  tell  you 
that  for  a  small  dinner  party  there  is  nothing  compar- 


Figure  78 


able  with  our  circular  friend.  The  outward  bend  and 
consequent  placing  of  one's  neighbors  right  and  left,  in 
a  position  where  conversation  is  enjoyable,  renders  the 
round  table  unrivalled  for  the  party  of  six  or  eight. 

There  is  a  sturdiness  about  German  furniture,  that 
does  not  obtain  in  French  or  in  the  furniture  of  other 
Latin  races,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  examples  shown  on 
Plate  VII,  where  five  pieces  of  German  Renaissance  are 
illustrated.  True,  these  pieces  are  not  so  dainty,  or  so 
exquisitely  beautiful  as  much  of  the  French  work,  yet, 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  159 


18      CHIPPENDALE. 
Plate  IX 


160 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


they  have  a  dignity  of  their  own,  and  the  carvings  are 
stronger  and  more  vigorous  than  those  of  French  pro- 


Figure  79 

duction.  The  Frontispiece  of  this  work  shows  a  very 
fine  example  of  German  work,  and  is  quite  modern,  both 
in  style  and  construction. 

The  German  bed  shown  at  Fig.  79  is  quite  a  solid 
looking  piece  of  furniture,  but  has  an  inviting  and  com- 
fortable appearance. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


161 


Figure  81 


162 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  82 


The  two  old  German  chairs 
shown  at  Figs.  80  and  81, 
are  comfortable  even  if  they 
are  heavily  built  and  pon- 
derous looking1.  They  are 
substantial  and  strong.  The 
little  table,  Fig.  82,  is  char- 
acteristic of  old  time  German 
work.  The  bed  shown  in  Fig. 
83  is  drawn  from  a  photo 
taken  of  the  bed  used  by  Na- 
poleon, and  his  consort,  the 

unfortunate  Josephine.  It  is  said  to  be  a  very  com- 
fortable bed  to  rest  in  and  there  are  many  like  it  still 
used  in  France. 

The  sturdy  old  chair  shown  in  Fig.  84,  is  from  Spain. 
In  form,  the  chair  is  of  course,  common  enough;  but 
a  new  idea  may  be  gathered  from  the  upholstery.  It 
consists  of  stout  velvet,  stuffed  properly  with  feathers, 
and  quilted  after  down-quilt  fashion.  It  is  fastened  to 
the  walnut  framing  with  "extra  size"  brass  studs,  and 
some  neglige  trellis  fringe  is  added  to  finish.  It  seems 
to  me  that  such  quilted  upholstery  might  be  applied  to 
many  modern  chairs  where  shallow  stuffing  is  desirable. 
If  hair  is  substituted  for  feathers,  a  comfortable  and 
pleasing  result  could  be  obtained  without  the  stuffiness 
and  fragility  of  bottoming.  Altogether  this  old  chair 
looks  commanding  as  the  center-piece  in  the  large  glass 
case  in  which  it  is  preserved. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  163 


164  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

We  may  now  safetly  turn  to  English,  and  American 
furniture,  and  its  makers,  of  the  eighteenth,  and  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  centuries,  which  were  the 
periods  of  the  most  artistic  work.  In  the  earliest  work, 
the.  lingering  of  Gothic  and  early  Renaissance  principles 
of  construction  gave  a  respose  of  line  and  appearance 
of  stability  and  permanence  often  lacking  in  French 


Figure 


furniture  of  the  same  time.  French  eighteenth-century 
furniture,  though  in  reality  very  substantially  built,  is 
apt  to  have  a  fragile  appearance,  and  every  one  knows 
that  the  grace  and  freedom  of  its  curves  are  only  to 
be  had  at  the  cost  of  a  considerable  loss  of  strength.  In 
keeping  to  simpler  and  more  rigid  forms  the  English  and 
American  makers  were  preserving  good  traditions,  and 
if  their  ornamental  systems  were  seldom  appropriate 
or  in  pure  taste,  at  least  good  workmanship  and  care- 
ful finish  cannot  be  denied  them. 

Among  the  accompanying  designs  of  furniture,  the 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


165 


Figure  84 

large  bookcase,  Fig.  85,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  plan,  is 
very  simple  in  construction ;  but  what  a  hotch-potch  the 
designer  has  made  of  Gothic-looking  clustered  columns, 
false  pediment  with  olive  mouldings,  and  classic 


166  THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


Plate  XI 


THE    PRACTICAL  ^CABINET    MAKER  1G7 


Figure  85 


168 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


aeroteria.  The  other  bookcase,  Fig.  86,  solid  shelves 
alternating  with  closed  cupboards,  is  again  of  sensible 
general  design;  but,  though  its  proportions  are  much 


Figure  86 

better,  there  is  a  mixture  of  ornamental  motives  which 
strikes  the  eye  as  incongruous.  The  pretty  rococo  crest- 
ings,  to  which,  if  cast  in  brass  or  gilt,  no  one  need  object 
as  a  finish  for  the  top  of  the  piece,  are  still  not  in  keep- 
ing with  the  severe  geometrical  tracery  of  the  panels 
and  sash  lines.  The  two  end  cupboards  especially  are 
out  of  all  harmony  with  the  center  form  of  the  pedi- 
ments. 


THE   PRACTIC\L   CABINET    MAKER 


169 


In  less  elaborate  pieces  of  furniture,  however,  a  hap- 
pier result  was  often  arrived  at. 

The  two  night  tables  by  Ince  and  Mayhew,  Fig.  89, 
show,  that  to  the  right  the  pure  French  style;  that  to 


Fisruro   ^7 

the  left  the  English  taste  in  an  uncommonly  straight- 
forward example.  Nothing  has  here  been  borrowed  of 
the  French  but  its  lightness  and  finish.  The  geometrical 
tracery  is  not  put  out  of  countenance  by  the  very  dis- 
creet introduction  of  rococo  foliage  scrolls  at  the  feet 
and  supporting  the  raised  parts  of  the  slight  rail.  One 
feels  how  much  more  comfortable  an  object  it  is  than 


170 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


Plate  XII 

its  neighbor,  which,  though  really  as  soundly  built,  has 
an  air  of  being  in  full  dress,  and  not  to  be  familiarly 
treated.  The  supper  Canterbury  and  stand  by  Sheraton 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  171 

are  likewise  simple  and  of  a  sturdy  elegance.  It  is  in 
such  pieces  as  these  that  we  have  the  best  work  by  the 
best  workmen.  A  father  and  son,  under  the  firm  title 
of  \Ym.  Loyd  &  Son,  Boston,  Mass.,  made  a  lot  of  work 
of  this  kind  before  the  revolution,  and  many  pieces  of 
this  work  found  their  way  into  Philadelphia  and  the 
south  as  far  as  Georgia ;  and  was  quite  common  in  the 


Figure  88 

New  England  States,  New  York,  and  New  Jersey. 
Odd  pieces  are  occasionally  found  in  some  of  the  old 
colonial  houses.  This  work  may  be  known  by  the  two 
letters  L  and  B,  which  are  usually  found  burned  in  some 
out  of  the  way  place  on  the  specimen.  The  letters  were 
rudely  cut  in  the  brand. 

Chippendale  the  greatest  English  designer  and  cabinet 
maker  revolutionized  the  styles  of  furniture  and  in- 
troduced many  new  features  that  seemed  to  take  hold 


172 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


of  the  people  and  stay  by  them,  and  his  contemporaries 
and  immediate  followers  kept  the  public  favor  by  de- 
signing on  lines  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  the  mas- 
ter. Along  with  the  meritorious  things  Chippendale 
designed  there  came  a  lot  of  stuff  that  was  frivolous  and 


Figure  89 

almost  absurd  and  showed  how  the  artist  must  have 
been  lost  in  the  struggle  after  novelties.  His  imitators 
were  as  faulty  in  many  of  their  productions,  and  Shera- 
ton, Heppelwhite,  Mayhew,  Ince,  and  even  the  Adam 
brothers,  left  much  work  behind  them  that  had  but 
little  merit.  I  do  not  wish  it  to  be  inferred  that  I  am 


THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


173 


174  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

inveighling  against  the  artistic  merits  of  Chippendale 
and  his  coadjutors,  I  only  speak  of  his  shortcomings  as 
a  reminder,  that  even  Homer  himself  sometimes  nods. 
The  chairs  and  table  shown  in  Fig.  90  are  fine  ex- 
amples of  the  masters'  work  and  are  really  handsome 
designs,  and  paragons  of  good  construction  and  faith- 
ful workmanship. 


Figure  91 

We  show  two  plates — Nos.  VIII  and  IX  of  Chippen- 
dale designs,  which,  with  what  we  have  shown  in  the 
foregoing  pages,  will  enable  our  readers  to  recognize 
this  master's  work  at  sight.  Plate  VIII,  illustrates  some 
of  his  best  work,  especially  the  chair  backs  shown  at 
ii  and  12.  The  other  backs  shown  I,  3  and  9  are  not 
so  chaste  but  are  favorites  with  some  people.  The  de- 
signs shown  on  Plate  IX,  are  very  clever,  and  in  some 
instances,  beautiful  but  are  not  by  any  means  up  to  the 
best  standard  of  Chippendale's  work. 

Perhaps  on  the  whole,  Sheraton,  was  as  popular  as 
any  of  the  great  English  masters,  and  in  our  opinion, 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


175 


justly  so,  for  his  work  was,  in  many  instances,  as  chaste 
in  design,  as  finely  finished  and  much  more  substantial 
in  construction  than  the  work  turned  out  by  Chippen- 
dale or  Heppelwhite.  Sheraton  succeeded  Chippendale 


Figure  92 


in  fashionable  esteem,  and  was  a  more  sober  and  elegant 
designer.  His  pieces  never  offend  the  eye,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  are  not  so  characteristic  as  those  of 
his  less  artistic  predecessor.  The  double  chair,  Fig.  91, 
covered  with  a  piece  of  Aubusson  tapestry,  is  in  his 
style,  though  it  may  not  be  of  his  make.  He  was  very 
ingenious  in  inventions  of  the  sort,  and  numerous  con- 
trivances for  getting  double  service  out  of  chairs  and 
tables,  are  ascribed  to  him.  The  sofa,  Fig.  92,  is  an  ex- 
cellent example  of  the  same  taste,  for  the  alliance  of 
straight  lines  with  refined  curves,  on  which  his  fame 
chiefly  rests;  indeed,  reticence  in  ornament  was  his 
study. 


176 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


The  sofa  shown  in  Fig.  93,  is  a  dainty  work  both  in 
design  and  finish,  and  is  a  typical  Sheraton.     The  two 


Figure  93 


settles  shown  at  Fig.  94  and  95,  are  Sheraton's  work 
and  are  good  examples  of  his  style  on  furniture  of  this 


Figure  94 


kind.    They  are  evidently  derived  from  the  sofa  of  the 
period,  diminished  in  size  and  robbed  of  its  back. 

The  Sheraton  table  (Fig.  96)  is  a  beautiful  specimen 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  177 


Plate  XHI 


178  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

of  its  class,  well  worthy  of  reproduction,  notwithstand- 
ing that  the  center-table  is  at  present  out  of  favor.  The 
diagram,  Fig.  97,  explains  the  somewhat  unusual  con- 
struction, and  shows  how  the  problem  of  drawers  in  a 
circular  plan  has  been  solved.  The  fictitious  quadrant- 


Figure  95 


drawers  are  really  little  cupboards,  as  is  indicated  in 
the  working  drawing.  That  any  manufacturer  to-day 
would  invest  the  labor  needed  to  make  this  table  proper- 
ly, is  perhaps,  doubtful;  yet  the  elements  of  its  con- 
struction deserves  study  and  adaptation. 

The  little  table,  and  the  arm-chair  shown  at  Fig. 
98,  are  fine  chaste  specimens  of  the  Sheraton  period  and 
could  well  afford  to  be  imitated.  If  space  allowed  we 
would  very  much  like  to  publish  three  or  four  plates  of 
Sheraton's  designs,  but  we  have  already  devoted  more 
space  than  we  first  intended,  so  in  this  case  we  offer  one 
Plate,  X,  which  shows  up  quite  a  number  of  Sheraton's 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


179 


best  designs ;  and  these,  along  with  the  figured  illustra- 
tions, will,  we  think,  make  sufficient  exhibits  for  one 
purpose. 


Plates  XI  and  XII  show  some  fine  examples  of 
Heppelwhite's  work.  These  are  choice  specimens  of  this 
style,  and  show  up  some  very  good  work.  Plate  XII 
exhibits  six  sideboards,  four  pedestals,  and  a  tea  chest 
by  Heppelwhite.  The  dimensions  of  the  sideboards 


180 


THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


are : — Length,  from  5}^  ft.  to  7  ft. ;  height,  3  ft. ;  depth, 
28  in.  to  32  in.  The  notes  referring  to  Nos.  5,  8,  9, 
and  1 1  state  that  "the  ornaments  to  the  fronts  .  .  . 
may  be  carved,  painted,  or  inlaid  with  various  colored 
woods."  The  pedestals  were  made  of  the  same  height 
as  the  sideboards,  were  generally  about  1 6  in.  or  1 8  in. 


Figure  97 

square,  and  were  often  surmounted  by  vases  from  2  ft. 
to  2  ft.  3  in.  high.  The  ornamentation  of  the  tea  chest 
may,  according  to  Heppelwhite's  book,  either  be  inlaid, 
or  "painted  and  varnished." 

Heppelwhite,  while  he  did  not  reach  the  height  in 
public  esteem  that  Chippendale  and  Sheraton  did,  his 
work  was  much  sought  for  and  enormous  prices  were 
paid  for  examples,  and  to-day,  when  fashion  has 
changed  somewhat,  well  authenticated  examples  com- 
mand prices  that  place  them  beyond  the  reach  of  or- 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  181 

dinary  purses.  Cases  are  quoted  where  a  single  chair 
brought  as  much  as  200  dollars.  The  designs  which 
we  illustrate  could,  probably,  be  reproduced  for  one- 


Figure  98 


third  of  that  sum,  and  with  the  carving  omitted  for  still 
less.  That  is  assuming  that  costly  wood,  like  rosewood 
or  mahogany,  is  exacted,  and  providing  for  the  very 
best  workmanship ;  quite  as  artistic  results  may  be  ob- 
tained as  in  those  of  the  originals. 

The  most  notable  difference  between  the  chairs  of 
Heppelwhite  and  Chippendale  is  that  the  latter  affected 
the  large  square  backs  and  ultra-French  details  never 


182 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


to  the  taste  of  Heppehvhite,  who  in  his  own  book  says : 
"Our  idea  of  the  useful,  in  such  articles  as  are  generally, 
serviceable  in  real  life,  is  to  unite  elegance  and  utility, 
and  blend  the  useful  with  the  agreeable";  this  as  he 
elsewhere  points  out,  was  better  attained  by  allowing 


Figure  99 


English  taste  and  workmanship  full  play,  than  alien 
styles  too  literally  with  many  anacronisms.  The  four 
Heppehvhite  arm  chairs  shown  in  Fig.  99  are  fair 
samples  of  the  style  and  show  in  them,  the  peculiar 
characteristics  of  the  Heppehvhite  treatment. 

The  general  dimensions  of  Heppehvhite's  chairs  are 
19  or  20  inches  for  the  width  of  the  front;  for  the 
depth  of  the  seat  and  length  of  seat  frame,  17  inches 
each,  and  the  total  height  about  3  ft.  i  in.  He  especially 
prided  himself  on  the  painted  "japanned"  decoration  in 
his  actual  productions ;  yet  in  writing  he  disclaimed  the 
mere  novelty  of  such  fugitive  decorations  and  most 
strongly  recommended  the  more  durable  method  of  in- 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


183 


Plate  XIV 


184 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


laying,  although  he  confesses  the  former  was  pretty 
enough  while  it  lasted.  This  divergence  between  theory 
and  practice  has  always  ruled  in  furniture,  for,  chosen 


Figure  100 


solely  for  its  fashion  and  appearance  by  most  buyers, 
no  absurd  innovation  has  failed  to  find  a  responsive 
purchaser. 

Perhaps,  of  all  the  styles  of  furniture  known,  there 
is  not  one  of  them  that  appeals  to  the  refined  artistic 
feelings  more  than  that  evolved  by  the  Adam  Brothers 


THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  183 

— Richard  and  James — who,  in  their  early  youth,  be- 
came recognized  as  masters  of  elegant  design.  At  this 
date,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  obtain  a  copy  of 
their  works,  and  to  look  them  over  Students  are  obliged 
to  go  to  some  National  Library.  There  are  copies  we 
believe  in  the  Lennox  Library,  New  York,  but  we  do 
not  know  of  any  other  original  work  of  theirs  in  the 
United  States  or  even  of  copies  of  them.  Examples  of 
the  work  of  these  two  men  are  scarcely  ever  found  in 
the  market,  but  when  such  is  the  case,  the  demand  for 
them  is  so  great  that  ridiculously  high  prices  are  paid 
for  their  possession.  The  efforts  of  these  designers 
were  secured  altogether  by  royalty  and  the  Nobility, 
and  this  accounts  largely  for  the  scarcity  of  examples. 

Plates  XIII  and  XIV,  show  a  few  examples  of  work 
in  this  style.  Plate  XIII  shows  a  number  of  details 
for  furniture  and  general  house  finish.  Plate  XIV 
shows  a  portion  of  an  octagon  Boudoir  in  this  style, 
with  several  pieces  of  furniture  and  fittings.  This  style 
is  better  known  as  "The  Adam's  Classic  Style,"  and  is 
very  beautiful  indeed. 

With  this  (Plate  XIV)  we  will  close  this  essay  on 
"style,"  as  those  we  have  mentioned  cover  pretty  nearly 
all  those  various  modes  of  construction  and  decoration 
worthy  of  the  name  of  "style." 

\Ye  have  not  said  much  of  the  "Gothic  Style"  for  this 
is  not  supposed  to  be  employed — only  for  church  work, 
though  sometimes  it  is  made  use  of  in  dwellings  for 


186  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

the  clergy,  or  similar  purposes.  \Ye  may  have  more  to 
say  of  "Gothic,"  later  on.  The  "Xew  Art"  or  "Art 
Nouveau,"  which  was  in  such  vogue  a  few  years  ago, 
was  simply  a  "fad,"  and  is  now  dead,  and  properly  so — 
and  is  not  likely  to  be  even  resurrected.  We  devote  one 
Plate,  XV,  to  this  fad,  so  that  posterity  may  have  some 
idea  as  to  what  "Art  Xouveau"  was,  "once  upon  a 
time." 


L'ART  XOUVEAU. 

Methought  I  had  a  curyous  dreame,  though,  certes,  I 

doe  wot 
That  thynges  are  seldome  what  they  seeme,  whether  in 

dreams  or  not ; 

Yet  I  dyd  see  soe  vyvydly  what  I  wyll  eke  rehearse, 
I  wyst  some  lesson  there  must  be  yn  thys,  my  humble 

verse. 

Yt  soe  befell  upon  a  daye  ye  desygn  I'd  conceyve, 
I  drew  yt  not  for  Art,  buy  paye,  my  fortune  to  retryeve  ; 
I  took  yt  to  a  fact'ry  wyght,  syth  he  was  kynd  to  me, 
I  thought  he  eke  yn  kyndness  myght  some  meryt  yn  yt 


Yet  whyle  he  lookt  wyth  curyous  eye  my  spyryts  'gan 

to  synk, 
When  he  upset  quyte  suddenly  ye  bottle  of  black  ynk ; 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  187   ' 

Yt  tryckled  down  ye  desygn  sketch  yn  streamlets  long 

and  deepe 
Ere  blottying  paper  I  could  fetch,  and  I  was  fayne  to 

weepe. 

But  he,  thys  knowen  fact'ry  wyght,  exclaimed,  "I  have 

yt  now 
Thys  accidente  has  thrown  ye  lyght,  yt  eke  has  shown 

me  how 
To  make  ye  fortune  for  ye,  boy — come  to  my  happy 

breaste ; 
I  chortle  yn  my  newe-found  joye,  of  golde  thys  ys  a 

neste !" 

Effsoones,  he  bade  me  goe  my  waye,  with  conge  cour- 
teous, 

And  ever  synce  that  fateful  daye  I've  been  vyctoryous : 

For  I  have  gotte  ye  piles  of  cash,  of  gold  ye  goodly  sto ; 

Some  people  saye  my  desygn's  trash — I  call  yt  1'Art 
Nouveau. 

"The  Mission  fad,  is  nearly  as  unartistic  as  the  "Art 
Nouveau"  and  because  of  its  easy  construction,  is  likely 
to  become  more  popular.  This  should  be  called  "The 
carpenter  style,"  for  every  carpenter  having  a  fair 
knowledge  of  his  trade,  should  be  able  to  make  almost 
any  kind  of  "Mission  Furniture."  This  style  has  no 
Artistic  merit  other  than  its  simplicity  and  honesty. 


188 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


For  some  purposes,  the  furniture  made  in  this  style  be- 
comes quite  suitable  and  appropriate. 


AN   ORIENTAL    ROOM. 


Figure  101 


On  plate  XV,  a  number  of  picturesque  examples  of 
"Swiss  work"  is  shown.  We  offer  these  examples  be- 
cause of  their  artistic  features,  and  their  appropriateness 
for  articles  of  furniture  for  sea  or  lakeside  cottages, 
or  bungalows.  All  these  articles  shown  are  easily  made 
and  as  easily  kept  clean  if  left  in  a  natural  condition. 

Fig.  100  shows  an  old  Scandinavian  chair  which  ex- 
hibits good  solid  workmanship.  Fig.  101  shows  a  room 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


189 


PICTURESQUE     EXAMPLES     OF    SWISS     WORK. 

Plate  XV 


190  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

fitted  up  in  oriental  style  with  a  few  pieces  of  oriental 
furniture  shown  where  some  idea  as  to  the  shape  and 
style  of  decoration  of  such  furniture  may  be  gleaned. 
Fig.    102,   shows  an  ebony  "Koran"   holder,   from 


Figure  102 

Algiers.  This  is  a  beautiful  piece  of  work,  the  inlaying 
all  being  done  in  pearl  and  ivory. 

Fig.  103,  Shows  an  old  Italian  chair.  This  is  quite 
ornate,  but  is  doubtless,  very  comfortable. 

The  chairs  shown  in  Fig.  104,  are  of  old  German 
type  and  are,  without  doubt,  a  pair  of  cosy,  comfortable 
chairs.  The  woodwork  on  them  seems  to  be  ash,  but  is 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


191 


dark  with  age.  The  stiff  prim  looking  chair  shown  in 
Fig.  105,  is  of  old  Dutch  parentage,  and  has  a  stately, 
if  not  a  lordly  appearance. 


Figure  103 


Fig.  1 06,  shows  another  old  Dutch  chair,  with  cab- 
riole legs.  This  is  rather  a  pretentious  affair.  The 
Italian  chair  shown  at  Fig.  107  is  of  late  Italian  Re- 
naissance style  and  is  overloaded  with  unnecessary  and 


192 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


193 


frivolous  carvings.  It  is  a  comfortable  chair  to  sit  in 
but  is  umvieldly  and  ponderous.  Fig.  108,  exhibits  a 
neat  German  chair  suitable  for  a  library,  den  or  even 
a  hall.  The  carving  on  it,  is  chaste  and  excellently 
wrought. 

The  little  writing  table  shown  at  Fig.  109  is  one  of 


Figure  104 


the  most  dainty  pieces  of  furniture  in  existence.  It  was 
probably  made  by  Oeban  or  Riesner  and  shows  the 
most  exquisite  workmanship.  As  a  mere  matter  of 
value  it  would  probably  fetch  about  thrice  its  weight 
in  gold.  It  is  throughout  a  model  of  the  finest  art  work- 
manship, within  and  without;  the  beautiful  marquetry 
panels ;  the  elaborately  chased  metal  mounts ;  the  choice 
little  porcelain  requisites  might  each  form  the  subject 
of  a  special  essay.  The  table  has  only  to  be  seen  to  be 
coveted.  We  are  convinced  that  nothing  we  have  seen 
of  this  description  before  or  after,  can  compare  in  ele- 
gance and  beauty  with  this  little  escritoire,  once  used 
by  Marie  Antoinette. 


194 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


The  table  shown  in  Fig.  no,  is  German,  and  has  a 
massive  characteristic  look,  it  is  intended  for  library 
purposes.  Fig.  1 1 1  shows  a  work  table  made  for  the 


Figure  105 


Figure  106 


ill-fated  Marie  Antoinette  and  is  considered  a  gem  in  its 
way  and  has  a  value  far  beyond  the  reach  of  ordinary 
mortals. 

The  table  shown  in  Fig.  112,  is  in  Mahogany  and 
was  executed  for  the  war  department,  Washington, 
D.  C.  It  is  a  fine  specimen  of  American  workmanship. 
It  was  made  in  Boston,  Mass.  The  dainty  little  writing 
desks  shown  in  Figs.  113  and  114,  are  of  French  manu- 
facture of  the  period  of  Marie  Antoinette,  and  were 
the  forerunners  of  many  of  the  present  beautiful  writ- 
ing desks  that  are  being  made  now  by  the  thousands  in 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


195 


Figure  107 

some  of  our  Cabinet  factories.  They  are  worth  imitat- 
ing as  they  contain  many  features  of  beauty  and  good 
taste. 

Stepping  from  chairs  and  tables  to  cabinets  we  have 
a  large  field  to  gather  from,  but  it  is  not  our  intention 


196 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  108 


Figure  109 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  197 


198 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  111 

to  deal  at  length  with  these  articles,  so  a  few  examples 
must  suffice.  The  Cabinet — or  Armoire,  as  it  is  called 
in  French — shown  in  Fig.  115  is  said  to  be  one  of  the 
finest  pieces'of  wo.odxvork  in  the  world.  It  was  designed 


THF    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


200 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


by  Berain,  and  executed  by  Boulle,  for  Louis  XIV. 
The  delicacy  and  beauty  of  the  coloring  of  the  inlaid 
brass  work,  in  metal  of  two  tints,  the  boldness  of  the 
arabesque  work,  and  the  fine  proportions  and  unusual 


Figure  113 


size  of  the  cabinet,  entitles  it  to  the  place  of  honor 
awarded  it. 

The  German  cabinet  shown  in  Fig.  116,  is  a  very 
fine  example  of  workmanship,  and  nearly  equals  the 
French  work  in  Artistic  merit.  The  cabinet  shown  at 
Fig.  117,  is  not  given  for  its  beauty,  but  because  of  the 
usefulness,  and  combined  purposes.  It  is  in  Queen 
Anne  style  and  may  prove  suggestive,  if  nothing  more. 

The  two  cabinets  shown  at  Figs.  118  and  119,  show 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  201 


two  very  fine  cabinets  well  suited  to  receive  curios  and 
artistic  trinkets.     They  are  artistically  designed. 

Wall,  or  hanging  cabinets,  are  very  useful  articles 
of  furniture,   and  designs  for  them  are  numerous — 


Figure  114 


many  of  which  are  good — but  we  give  a  few  herewith, 
which  \ve  think  possess  several  good  features.  The  two 
designs  shown  at  Fig.  120  are  very  simple  but  very 
effective.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  three  designs 
shown  in  Fig.  121.  These  latter  may  be  used  for 
cabinets  to  hang  on  a  flat  wall,  or  for  corner  cabinets. 


202 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  111 


THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  203 

SYNOPSIS  OF  STYLES. 

The  Gothic  style  followed  the  Romanesque  or  round- 
arched.  In  France  and  England  it  developed  towards 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  In  this  country  the 
Decorated  Gothic  was  the  second  stage  (during  the 
fourteenth  century),  and  the  Perpendicular  Gothic 
followed  in  the  fifteenth. 

The  Moorish  or  Saracenic  developed  in  the  eighth 
century.  It  wras  the  style  of  the  Mohammedans.  A 
feature  of  the  style  is  its  extraordinary  geometrical 
combinations.  The  Alhambra  (Granada),  built  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  is  considered  the  most  perfect  speci- 
men of  architecture  in  this  style. 

Francis  I.  belongs  to  the  Early  French  Renaissance 
(151 5-1 549) .  It  is  freely  ornamented  Gothic,  develop- 
ing under  Italian  influence.  Its  feature  is  a  minuteness 
of  detail.  The  palace  of  Fontainebleau  was  built  in  this 
style  by  Francis  I. 

Henry  II.  (Middle  French  Renaissance),  who  fol- 
lowed Francis  I.,  developed  the  existing  style  along 
lines  of  greater  purity,  more  closely  resembling  the 
original  Italian.  Many  of  the  details  in  this  style 
are  applicable  to  modern  requirements. 

Henri  IV.  brings  us  to  the  period  of  the  Late  French 
Renaissance  ( 1589-1610).  A  study  of  the  illustrations 
following  will  clearly  show  the  tendency  of  the  time, 
preparing  the  way  for  the  magnificence  of  the  Louis 
XIV.  style  (treated  later). 


204 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  116 

Louis  XIV.  (1643-1715).  Magnificence  in  decora- 
tive designing.  The  era  of  Chas.  le  Brun,  Andre 
Chas.  Boulle,  Jean  Berain,  Jean  Le  Pautre,  and  Daniel 
Marot. 

The  Regency  (1715-1723).    The  period  during  the 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  205 

minority  of  Louis  Quinze.  Elaborate  detail  is  notice- 
able. 

Louis  XV.  (1723-1774),  Rococo  period.  The  lead- 
ing men  of  the  time  are  Watteau,  Nicholas  Pineau, 
Jacques  Caffieri,  Jules  Aurele  Meissonier,  Jacques 
Blondel,  Denizol,  Chas.  Cressent,  Oeben,  Tessier,  and 
Martin  (originator  of  Vernis-Martin  panels). 

Louis  XVI.  (1774-1792),  Era  of  daintiness  and 
grace.  Rococo  ornament  suppressed.  The  boudoir 
supersedes  the  salon.  The  leading  men  were  Gouthiere, 
David  Roentgen,  and  Riesner. 

The  Empire  was  a  return,  under  Napoleon,  to  the 
classic  styles  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Details  include 
decorated  cornices,  caryatides,  pilasters,  etc. 

The  English  Renaissance  was  introduced  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Sixteenth  Century.  The  Elizabethan 
was  its  "golden  age."  The  details  on  Page  121  are 
from  the  chimney-piece  in  the  library  at  Holland  House, 
the  fretwork  is  from  Audley  End,  and  the  carved  panel 
is  at  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 

Chippendale  (1754)  needs  little  comment.  His  de- 
signs include  French  details,  and  also  show  signs  of 
Chinese  influence. 

Sheraton  (1751)  is  too  well  known  to  need  descrip- 
tion. The  details  given  in  this  style  are  illustrative 
of  all  phases  of  his  work. 

Heppel white  (1789),  though  often  closely  on  Shera- 


206 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  117 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


207 


208  THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

ton's  lines,  has  a  beauty  of  his  own.     Louis  Seize  in- 
fluence is  very  apparent  in  this  style. 

Adam  (1773)  details  are  architectural,  the  furniture 
of  the  Brothers  Adam  being  chiefly  constructed  to  har- 
monize with  the  buildings  in  which  it  was  to  be  used. 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  209 


210  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

PRACTICAL  WORK. 

In  a  simple  treatise  it  is  quite  impossible  to  convey 
any  adequate  idea  of  the  art  of  cabinet-making.  So 
much  could  be  said  that  it  is  most  difficult  to  know 
what  to  leave  out,  and  however  fully  this  subject  may 
be  enlarged  upon,  the  broad  fact  that  but  one-half  has 
been  told  must  remain.  Further,  a  budding  cabinet- 
maker will  learn  more  during  the  first  twelve  months 
of  his  apprenticeship  than  all  the  text-books  in  the 
country  can  teach  him.  The  old  Roman  motto,  Ez- 
perientia  docct,  is  truer  to-day  than  ever.  Experience 
has  been,  and  will  be,  the  best  teacher;  but  just  as  it  is 
possible  to  start  in  life  with  better  prospects  upon  the 
solid  foundations  laid  by  one's  forebears,  so  by  the 
aid  of  a  few  practical  suggestions  may  a  youth  be 
helped  upward  on  the  ladder  of  perfection.  The  cab- 
met-maker  must  always  strive  after  excellence.  There 
is  absolutely  no  room  for  men  who  are  only  half- 
masters  of  their  craft ;  the  net  result  of  incompetence  is 
a  general  leveling  of  the  highest  to  the  least  efficient, 
a  diminution  of  the  rate  of  wages,  and  a  disastrous 
lowering  of  the  quality  of  work.  The  various  styles 
of  workmanship  should  incite  the  cabinet  trade  of  to- 
day to  patient  and  thoughtful  work.  It  may  be  urged — 
and  possibly  truly — that  these  master-pieces  of  which 
we  speak  were  not  the  daily  product  of  the  age  which 
produced  them.  That  inferior  work  was  then  produced 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


211 


212  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

may  be  admitted;  but  the  mere  fact  that  time  has 
wrought  its  destruction  should  be  sufficient  evidence 
that  this  class  of  work  is  not  such  as  the  twentieth- 
century  cabinet-maker  should  imitate. 

And  here  one  word  to  the  journeyman  of  to-day. 
The  apprentice  working  under  your  superintendence 
will  be  exactly  as  you  make  him.  Men  are  copyists 
ever,  and  youth  is  the  most  impressionable  period.  See 
to  it,  then,  that  your  work  be  such  as  the  novice  tread- 
ing in  your  footsteps  may  safely  follow.  And  let  the 
apprentice  benefit  by  his  master's  experience,  commenc- 
ing where  the  latter  leaves  off,  and  thus  raising  the 
handicraft  to  a  higher  level  of  excellence.  The  only 
true  way  to  success  is  that  the  heart  be  in  the  work; 
toiling  not  merely  for  the  "standard  wage,"  nor  creat- 
ing a  piece  of  work  only  to  "sell,"  but  to  last. 

Just  as  to-morrow  is  the  child  of  to-day,  so  is  the 
journey-man  the  fulfilment  of  the  apprenticeship.  The 
groundwork  of  early  days  is  the  foundation  upon  which 
the  after-work  stands,  and  if  the  first  be  faulty  then  is 
there  but  inefficiency  hereafter.  One  word  as  to  the 
influence  of  trades-unionism  upon  the  cabinet  trade — 
it  has  its  strong  and  weak  points.  On  the  one  hand 
it  demands,  and  rightly,  from  the  master  a  standard  rate 
of  wage,  which  is  beneficial  insomuch  that  it  puts  all 
union  shops  on  the  same  level,  and  prevents  that  "cut- 
ting" policy  which  is  alike  disastrous  to  good  work  and 
sound  finance.  On  the  other  hand  it  gives  no  guarantee 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  213 

of  efficiency  in  the  worker ;  good  and  bad  are  linked  in 
one  union,  with  the  result  that  the  least  efficient  are 
often  out  of  work  and  maintained  at  the  expense  of 
their  more  skilled  brothers.  The  remedy  for  this  seems 
to  lie  here :  let  no  man  be  made  a  member  until  he  has 
passed  through  a  satisfactory  apprenticeship,  and 
proved  himself  to  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  his 
trade,  and  capable  of  honestly  earning  the  wage  de- 
manded; then  would  the  term  "union  man"  be  under- 
stood to  mean  skill  and  efficiency,  and  be  as  proud  a 
possession  of  the  man  earning  it  as  a  degree  to  a  college 
graduate. 

Possibly  it  may  be  thought  that  the  proceeding  lines 
have  savoured  too  much  of  the  ethics  of  labor — of 
work  in  its  highest  and  ideal  form — rather  than  of  the 
practical  teaching  of  a  competing  age.  But  there  is  a 
danger  that  in  the  mad  rush  for  cheap  and  badly  manu- 
factured furniture  the  true  constructive  art  may  be  lost, 
and  a  race  of  men  produced  wedded  to  one  job,  year 
in  and  year  out,  and  turning  out  work  bearing  neither 
the  stamp  of  individuality  nor  the  spirit  of  good  work- 
manship. 

Where  a  draughtsman  is  not  employed,  the  usual 
method  of  setting  out  work  is  to  make  a  full-size  detail 
from  the  scale-drawing  supplied.  This  is  done  most 
conveniently  upon  36-inch  lining-paper  strained  upon 
a  board,  say  7  ft.  x  4  ft.  This  size  will  be  found  to  be 
large  enough  for  most  jobs,  which  need  only  be  drawn 


214 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  215 

in  the  majority  of  cases  to  the  center  line,  thus  show- 
ing half  the  width  of  the  job,  the  other  half  being  a  re- 
peat. The  thickness-sections,  for  the  sake  of  clearness, 
may  be  put  in  with  blue  or  red  pencil.  Having  accom- 
plished this,  the  next  proceeding  will  be  to  take  off  the 
drawing  the  various  sizes  of  the  several  pieces  of  wood, 
allowing  sufficient  margin  for  finishing  to  the  net  sizes, 
and  for  the  length  of  tenons,  &c.  Many  of  the  small 
pieces  can  be  obtained  from  the  "scrap"-room,  where 
all  sorts  of  ends,  strips,  &c.,  are  stored  in  their  respective 
classes,  thus  saving  the  cutting  of  a  large  board  for  the 
purpose  of  an  odd  rail  or  so,  which  might  render  it  use- 
less by  reason  of  a  corner  having  been  cut  away. 

Tools. — The  trade  of  to-day  is  so  much  the  product 
of  machine  labor,  that  in  a  fully-equipped  shop,  where 
furniture  is  made  to  "stock"  designs,  the  manual  work 
is  little  more  than  that  of  fitting  together  the  various 
parts.  It  is,  however,  still  necessary  that  the  craftsman 
should  be  fully  acquainted  with  the  use  of  the  tools 
usually  associated  with  the  cabinet-maker's  bench.  The 
following  list  includes  all  those  commonly  required,  but 
special  tools  may  be  necessary  in  certain  cases : 

1  Folding  Rule,  2  or  3  feet. 

2  Hammers  (i  Bench  and  I  Framing), 
i  Mallet. 

i   pair  of  Pincers. 

3  Screwdrivers,  4.  8,  and  15  inches. 


216  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

3  Bradauls. 

3  Gimlets. 

i  Brace  and  Bits,  TS  to  il/2  inch. 

2.  Marking  Gauges, 

i  Cutting  Gauge, 

i  Mortise  Gauge. 

^  I  Dovetail  Saw,  8  inches. 

I  Tenon  Saw,  14  inches, 

i  Hand  Saw,  24  inches, 

i  Bow  Saw,  1 8  inches. 

i  set  of  Firmer  Chisels,  iV  to  il/2  inch, 

i  set  of  Mortise  Chisels,  */$  to  M  inch. 

1  set  of  Gouges,  /4  to  i  inch. 

2  Spoke-shaves, 
i  Trying  Plane, 
i  Jack  Plane. 

i  Smoothing  Plane  (wood). 
i   Smoothing  Plane  (iron). 
4  i  Toothing  Plane, 
i   Iron  Rebate  Plane, 
i  Wood  Rebate  Plane. 
i  Oil  Stone  and  Can. 

1  Marker. 

4.  6  Hand  Screws. 

2  Cork  Rubbers  (one  for  mouldings). 

1  Scraper. 

2  Rasps,  6  and  10  inches. 

2  Wood  Files,  6  and  10  inches. 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  217 

2.  Saw  Files. 

i   Square  (iron),  6  inches. 

i   Square  (wood),  24.  inches. 

i  Bevel. 

I  Nail-punch. 

i  pair  of  Compasses. 

i  Bench  Holdfast. 

i   Bench  Brush. 

i  Brace,  6  bits. 

CABINET  MAKERS'  JOINTS,  &c. 
What  may  be  termed  "edge- joints"  are  a  necessity 
in  cabinet-making,  because  timber  is  not  always  ob- 
tainable wide  enough  for  the  counter-top  or  panel  de- 
sired; and  if  it  were  so,  the  cost  would  prohibit  its 
general  use;  but  more  because  a  jointed  top  or  panel 
will  stand  much  better  than  a  single  piece,  and  this  is 
the  chief  thing  to  be  aimed  at.  There  is  a  tendency  in 
some  quarters  to  avoid  jointing,  but  the  policy  is  an 
unsound  one.  Again,  in  the  case  of  oak  panelling,  a 
much  better  effect  can  be  obtained  by  a  jointed  panel — 
throwing  all  the  figures  to  the  center  line — than  by  a 
single  unjointed  board.  The  chief  objection  to  jointing 
seems  to  lie  in  the  idea  that  sooner  or  later  the  joint 
will  give ;  it  may,  just  as  anything  is  likely  to  happen 
in  badly-constructed  work,  but  given  thoroughly  dry 
and  seasoned  timber,  a  sound  method  of  jointing,  and 
a  good  workman  to  do  it,  nothing  need  be  feared.  The 


218  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

necessity  for  jointing  will,  of  course,  be  governed  by  the 
width  of  the  timber  employed.  It  may,  however,  be 
taken  as  a  general  rule  that  nothing  wider  than  13  or 
14  inches  should  be  used  in  a  single  piece,  except  in 
the  case  of  countertops,  which  often  run  3  feet  6  inches 
to  4  feet  wide,  and  should  only  have  one  joint. 


Figure  123 

There  are  several  methods  of  jointing  which  we  will 
now  consider  in  detail:  (i)  Glue  joint;  (2}  Glue-and- 
dowel;  (3)  Tongue-and-groove  (or  rebate)  ;  and  (4) 
Double  groove  and  loose  tongue. 

The  Glue  Joint  shown  in  Fig.  123  is  perhaps  the  com- 
monest of  cabinet  joints  for  such  work  as  bears  no 
weight, — that  is,  perpendicular  work,  as  carcase  ends. 
The  method  of  making  the  joints  is  briefly  thus :  The 
two  boards  are  shot  with  a  trying  or  jointing  plane  until 
the  surface  edges  are  absolutely  true;  one  piece  is 
placed  in  the  bench-cramp,  the  other  being  held  so  that 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  219 

the  two  edges  are  together;  run  thin  glue  along  the 
joint,  then  work  the  loose  board  backwards  and  for- 
wards along  its  fellow  until  the  superfluous  glue  is  ex- 
tracted ;  the  joint  should  now  be  allowed  to  set.  If  the 
work  has  been  well  done  the  wood  is  much  more  likely 


-      (8     -.„__    fl^r 


Figure  124 

to  break  at  some  other  point  than  the  joint.  Complete 
success  depends  upon  two  factors — true  jointing  with 
the  plane,  and  good  glue.  There  are  so  many  good 
makes  of  the  latter  that  there  should  be  no  difficulty 
whatever  in  obtaining  it.  Remember  that  the  best  glue 
is  always  the  cheapest,  for  two  reasons — its  adhesive 
qualities  and  capacity  for  absorption  of  water.  Good 
glue  should  take  up  its  own  weight  of  water,  i.  e.,  I  Ib. 
of  glue  in  the  cake  should  produce  2.  Ibs.  weight  in  liquid 


220 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


form.  The  joint  to  be  glued  should  be  thoroughly 
warmed,  as  this  makes  the  glue  much  more  adhesive 
than  if  applied  to  a  cold  surface. 

Fig.  124  consists  of  jointing  as  in  Fig.  123,  with  the 


Figure  125 

addition  of  a  series  of  dowels  placed  along  the  joint,  the 
object  being  to  ensure  greater  strength  for  such  pur- 
poses as  a  countertop.  The  dowels  may  be  ^  inch  or 
Y-2  inch  in  diameter,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the 
timber  to  be  jointed.  They  should  be  placed  (say)  12 
inches  apart  and  bored  in  I  inch  deep,  the  end  of  the 
dowel  glued  and  knocked  in  with  a  framing  hammer, 
then  sawn  off  to  the  depth  of  the  corresponding  hole, 
and  the  ends  of  the  dowels  rounded  over;  glue  both 
edges  of  the  joint,  the  dowels,  and  dowel-holes,  knock 
down,  and  cramp  up.  The  superfluous  glue  will  thus  be 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


221 


squeezed  out,  and  when  the  glue  has  set,  the  board  can 
be  levelled  off. 

The  Tongue-and-Groove  Joint,  Fig.  125,  possesses 
advantages  not  found  in  the  preceding  ones,  viz.  a  great- 
er strength,  and  should  the  joint  "give,"  the  presence  of 
the  tongue  prevents  light  from  showing  through.  With 


Figure  126 

a  pair  of  match-planes  make  a  groove  on  one  piece  one- 
third  the  width  of  the  timber  used,  by  half  an  inch  deep, 
and  make  a  corresponding  tongue  on  the  other  piece. 
When  this  has  been  done,  fit  the  two  together,  seeing 
that  the  tongue  will  move  freely  along  the  groove,  then 
glue  and  rub  together  as  in  Fig.  123,  and  cramp  up. 

In  the  Double  Groove  and  Loose  Tongue  (Fig.  126) 
— the  main  idea  seems  to  be  that  when  jointing  two 
soft-woods  together  a  hard-wood  tongue  (which  should 
be  cut  across  the  grain)  may  be  inserted,  rendering  the 


222 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


17 

U   U   YT 

JL 

J  LJUL 

TJLJLT 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  223 

joint  less  liable  to  snap  than  if  a  tongue  were  cut  on 
the  soft-wood  itself  and  lengthways  with  the  grain. 
Proceed  as  in  Fig.  125,  only  making  two  grooves,  each 
the  same  width  and  depth;  glue  the  joints  and  loose 
tongue ;  rub,  and  cramp  up. 

We  have  previously  spoken  of  straight  jointing  for 
panels,  carcass  ends,  &c.,  but  the  methods  described  are 
not  suitable  for  the  joints  of  pieces  meeting  at  an  angle, 
as  in  the  framing  of  a  door  or  of  panelling.  Joints  of 
this  kind  may  be  considered  under  four  heads:  (i) 
Dovetailing;  (2)  Mortise-and-tenon;  (3)  Dowel;  and 
(4)  Mitre.  Two  broad  principles  would  seem  to 
govern  these,  viz.  that  the  wood  employed  be  absolute- 
ly dry,  and  that  the  joint  be  true.  Any  deviation  from 
either  of  these  fixed  rules  must  result  in  failure;  and 
the  second  is  to  a  large  extent  dependent  on  the  first, 
for  however  good  the  workmanship  may  be,  if  the 
wood  be  unseasoned  shrinkage  must  inevitably  occur, 
with  the  result  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  put  the 
work  right  when  once  the  job  has  been  framed  up. 
Hence  the  necessity  of  insisting  that  absolutely  dry 
stuff  is  an  essential  in  the  cabinet  trade. 

i.  Dovetailing — Fig.  127,  is  undoubtedly  the  joint 
par  excellence  for  cabinet  work;  it  takes  three  forms. 
No.  i  represents  the  ordinary  open  dovetail.  Each 
piece  to  be  dovetailed  is  marked  with  a  gauge  and  regu- 
lator, spacing  the  dovetails  according  to  the  width  of 
wood  to  be  jointed.  This  form  is  used  wherever  the 


224  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


No.  4 


No  3 


r 


Figure  128 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  225 

construction  is  hidden  from  view,  its  defect  being  that 
the  ends  of  the  dovetail  are  cut  completely  through, 
thus  showing,  if  exposed,  the  end  grain  of  the  "keys" 
of  the  other  piece.  When  this  is  not  desired  the  dove- 
tail is  made  as  No.  2,.  All  dovetails  should  be  cut 
wedge-shaped,  so  that  when  glued  and  hammered  they 
will  tighten  up,  and  when  smoothed  down  present  a 
perfect  joint. 

The  overlapping  or  concealed  dovetail  (No.  2)  is 
used  in  drawer  fronts,  where  it  is  desirable  to  conceal 
the  mode  of  construction.  The  dovetail  is  cut  entirely 
through  the  side,  but  only  two-thirds  through  the  front ; 
the  joint,  therefore,  is  visible  on  the  end  only  and  not 
on  the  front.  This  is  an  absolute  necessity  in  the  case 
of  veneering,  for  which  purpose  an  absolutely  flat  sur- 
face must  be  obtained,  otherwise  the  "keys"  would  show 
through  the  thin  veneer  and  spoil  the  whole  effect. 
The  jointing  up  and  finishing  is  precisely  the  same  as 
in  No.  i. 

The  mitre-dovetailed  (No.  3)  is  adopted  for  fine 
work  where  it  is  undesirable  to  show  the  dovetail  either 
on  front  or  side,  and  consists  of  a  dovetail  having  a 
mitre  on  each  outside  edge;  the  finished  joint  appears 
as  a  single  mitre  without  disclosing  the  dovetail  within. 

The  Mortise-and-Tenon  is  the  most  satisfactory  joint 
for  two  pieces  in  the  same  plane  meeting  at  an  angle ; 
it  takes  a  variety  of  forms  (Fig.  128).  The  main 
point  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  that  the  parts  to  form  the 


226 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


joint  be  cut  true;  otherwise,  either  the  tenon  will  be 
slack  and  the  joint  useless,  or  too  tight  and  will  split 
open  the  mortise. 

The  mortise  should  be  a  little  longer  than  the  tenon, 


Figure  129 

and  should  taper  inward  towards  its  base,  so  that  the 

tenon  will  be  slightly  wedged.  Other  methods  of  fixing 
the  joints  are:  (i)  to  make  the  mortise  large  enough 
to  admit  of  a  wedge  being  driven  in  on  each  side  the 
tenon,  which  effectually  "keys"  it;  in  this  case  the 
tenon  is  usually  put  in  dry,  that  is  without  glue;  and 
(2)  to  split  open  the  tenon  with  a  chisel,  and  insert  a 
wedge  in  the  center  and  drive  home.  The  danger  of 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


227 


this  method  is  that  the  tenon  is  liable  to  be  necked  off 
at  the  shoulder,  while  in  the  former  case  the  rail  may 
be  split.  If  the  mortise  and  tenon  are  fitted  true,  no 
wedging  should  be  necessary. 

r 


A 


Figure  130 

The  thickness  of  the  tenon  should  be  one-third  that 
of  the  rail  and  the  width  not  more  than  4  inches.  If 
a  wider  rail  has  to  be  used,  it  would  be  better  to  make 
two  mortises  and  tenons,  as  shown  in  Nos.  4  and  5. 

No.  i. — Ordinary  "cut-through"  mortise.    The  tenon 


228 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  131 


can  be  made  as  shown,  or  of  the  full  width  between  the 
grooves,  which  are  made  on  either  side  for  the  purpose 
of  receiving  the  panels. 

Nos.  2.  and  3. — Joints  for  panel  framing  with  internal 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


229 


mortises.    These  should  be  cut  slightly  deeper  than  the 
tenon,  the  joint  being  glued  up  and  cramped. 

Nos.  4  and  5. — Methods  of  framing  wide  rails  by 
means  of  double-tenons,  suitable  for  doors  where  wide 
rails  are  necessary.  No.  4  is  usually  called  a  gunstock 
joint. 


Figure  132 

In  framing  angles  having  moulds  on  one  or  both 
edges,  the  moulds  may  be  intersected  either  by  mitring 
or  scribing.  In  the  mitred  joint,  the  moulds  are  cut 
down  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  to  the  mortise-hole, 
and  the  moulds  adjoining  the  tenon  are  cut  to  fit.  The 
only  danger  in  this  method  is  that,  if  the  wood  is  wet 
the  mitre  will  dry  in,  leaving  an  open  space  impossible 
to  deal  with.  » 

The  process  of  scribing  (Fig.  130)  is  to  cut  under 
one  of  the  rails  to  the  pattern  of  the  other  which  it  is 


230 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


intended  to  join;  but  this  cannot  so  easily  be  done  with 
mouldings  containing  many  members,  as  it  would  be 
too  costly.  It,  however,  has  the  advantage  that,  if 
shrinkage  occurs,  the  joint  can  be  knocked  up  again, 
which  would  be  impossible  in  the  former  case. 

These  remarks  apply  to  moulds  worked  upon  the 
solid;  loose  or  "planted"  moulds  are  usually  mitred, 


Figure  133 

although  not  invariably.  Fig.  131  shows  a  scribed  joint 
for  panel-mouldings.  The  vertical  moulding  C  is  cut 
away  at  A  to  fit  on  to  the  horizontal  moulding  D.  The 
thick  line  AB  shows  the  line  the  scribe  will  make  at  the 
point  of  intersection. 

3.  Dowel-Joint  (Fig.  132)  though  often  adopted,  as 
it  economizes  labor,  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  the  mortise- 
and-tenon.  The  dowels,  which  are  usually  %  inch  in 
diameter,  often  shrink,  causing  the  joint  to  "give."  If 
the  dowels  are  of  beech  and  the  timber  dry,  the  joint 
should  be  satisfactory.  The  usual  method  of  setting  out 
a  dowel- joint  is  to  cut  a  piece  of  paper  the  size  of  the 
rail  and  prick  through  the  centers  required  according  to 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


231 


the  number  of  dowels  desired.  These  are  afterwards 
marked  upon  the  timber  itself.  If  the  wood  is  not 
more  than  I  inch  thick,  the  dowels  should  be  set  out  in 
the  center  of  the  rail  in  a  straight  line ;  if  thicker  wood 
is  used,  put  the  dowels  in  zigzag  fashion,  which  is  the 
better  way  where  it  can  be  managed. 


•wiiiftin  »^>x — -~— — . =—? 


Figure  134 


Where  small  sizes  are  used,  the  joint  at  the  angle 
formed  by  two  pieces  not  in  the  same  plane  is  usually 
mitred.  The  construction  of  the  joint  is  thus  hidden. 
No.  i,  Fig.  133,  shows  an  ordinary  mitre  at  an  angle 
of  45  degrees,  such  as  is  used  in  the  framing  of  a  plinth 
or  cornice  frieze;  the  joint  is  strengthened  by  a  block 
inside.  No.  2  represents  the  same  method,  with  the 
additional  safeguard  of  keys;  this  would  be  adopted  in 
the  case  of  thin  wood  where  the  mitre  surface  is  very 


232 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


small,  and  where  there  is  consequently  a  liability  to 
break ;  the  keys  are  usually  put  in  with  veneer,  a  saw-cut 
being  all  that  is  necessary  for  their  insertion.    Glue  is 
run  in  and  the  joint  levelled  off. 
No.  3  is  a  variation  of  No.  I. 


Fig.  134,  shows  an  angle  framed  by  dowels,  having 
on  the  one  edge  a  bead,  which  breaks  the  joint;  this 
would  be  used  in  framing  a  pilaster  upon  the  end  of  a 
carcass. 

Fig.  135,  shows  two  methods  of  framing  an  interior 
angle. 

No.  i,  Fig.  136,  shows  the  method  of  framing  a 
through  rail  intersected  into  a  center  leg,  not  more  than 
three  inches  square.  No.  2  shows  the  construction  if 
the  center  leg  is  above  that  size,  and  is  not  mortised  or 
dowelled.  No.  3  is  copied  from  an  old  card-table ;  the 
shouldering  and  dovetailing  of  the  rail  show  advantages 
over  No.  i. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


233 


A  cornice  may  be  worked  out  of  the  solid  piece  or 
built  up  in  various  pieces.  The  latter  form  is  usually 
adopted  by  cabinet-makers,  except  for  small  cornices. 
No.  i,  Fig.  137,  shows  a  built-up  mould;  the  pieces 


Figure  136 

should  be  glued  and  screwed  together,  blocks  being  put 
at  the  back  to  give  additional  strength.  No.  2  shows 
a  solid  hardwood  moulding  faced  upon  softwood,  the 
mould  having  a  rebate  for  the  insertion  of  a, dentil 
(shown  by  dotted  lines),  egg-and-dart,  or  other  or- 
nament. 

Ofttimes  the  cabinet-maker  is  left  to  design  the 
mouldings,  in  which  case  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that 
he  be  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  mouldings  of  the 
particular  style  or  period  in  which  he  is  working,  as  a 
Gothic  mould  would  be  out  of  place  upon  a  Renaissance 
piece  of  work,  and  a  Jacobean  cornice  upon  a  Sheraton 


234 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


job.     If  the  designer  is  not  conversant  with  the  gram- 
mar of  ornament,  all  kinds  of  incongruous  mixtures  are 


Figure  137 

created,  neither  true  to  style  nor  beautiful.     The  same 
remarks  apply  also  to  carving  and  turnery,  and  as  there 


Cornices 
Figure  138 


are  so  many  text-books  of  style  published,  there  is  abso- 
lutely no  excuse  for  ignorance  in  this  matter. 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


235 


Another  point  upon  which 
a  word  may  be  said  is  the 
proportioning  of  mouldings 
one  to  the  other  in  the 
building-up  of  a  cornice. 
Let  it  be  supposed  that  one 
has  to  be  stuck  by  hand. 
It  is  frequently  .possible  to 
pick  out  a  series  of  stock 
members  all  the  same  size,  Figure  139 

and  to  strike  out  a  variety  of  cornices  by  ringing  the 
changes  on  them.  The  result,  however,  will  be  a  mould- 
ing as  shown  in  No.  i,  Fig.  138,  where  all  the  members, 
a,b,c,d,e,f,  are  of  equal  depth.  This  is  both  incorrect 
and  inelegant ;  no  moulding  made  up  of  a  series  of 
members  should  have  any  two  in  conjunction  of  the 
same  depth,  but  the  proportion  should  be  varied  after 
the  manner  shown  in  No.  2,  the  effect  of  which — it  will 
be  at  once  apparent — is  much  better  than  No.  I. 


236 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


3.     HINGES. 

In  cabinet-work  the  methods  of  hanging  a  door, 
table-leaf,  &c.,  to  its  corresponding  part,  are  simple,  and 
the  foundation  of  the  joint  varies  but  little,  though  in 
the  case  of  hanging  a  door  with  heavy  projecting  mould- 
ing and  cornice  upon  the  face,  special  long-shouldered 
butts  would  be  used.  The  main  point  in  all  hangings  by 


Figure  140 

means  of  hinges  is  to  see  that  each  hinge  bears  its  due 
proportion  of  weight,  thus  avoiding  strain  and  conse- 
quent friction  and  possibly  breakage. 

Hinges  may  be  of  cast  or  malleable  iron,  steel,  brass, 
copper,  gun-metal,  'or  a  combination  of  metals,  such  as 
brass  with  steel  washers ;  for  heavy  work  these  washers 
should  always  be  used,  the  wearing  parts  being  stronger. 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


237 


The  earliest  form  of  hinge  seems  to  have  been  in  the 
form  of  an  oak  pin  (A  Fig.  139)  shaped  from  the  rail 
itself,  and  working  in  a  socket  cut  into  the  cross  rail 
above,  the  doors  being  framed  up  with  the  job  itself; 
the  form  is  common  in  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  century 
wood-work.  Later,  the  influence  of  Flemish  work  is 


Figure  141 


apparent,  and  the  pin-joint  gives  place  to  wrought-iron 
hinges  placed  upon  the  face  of  the  door  and  frame  with 
artistic  effect,  and  attached  by  means  of  large-headed 
nails  (Fig.  140).  During  the  Queen  Anne  and  Chip- 
pendale periods,  the  hinges  were  delicately  made  of  cast 
brass  and  fixed  by  screws. 

The  ordinary  way  of  hanging  by  butts  is  shown  in 
No.  I,  Fig.  141,  the  rebate  is  not  carried  through  the 
wood,  and  the  knuckle  projects  on  the  front  side.  If 
this  is  not  desired,  the  hinges  must  be  fixed  flush,  and 
a  bead  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  knuckle  run  down 


238 


THE   PRACTICAL    GARNET    MAKER 


to  make  a  better  finish.  When  a  lid  is  to  be  hinged,  it 
would  be  done  as  in  No.  2,  the  overhang  at  the  back 
being,  in  the  case  of  a  small  lid,  sufficient  to  serve  as  a 
stop  when  the  lid  is  open. 


Figure  142 

In  hanging  a  table-leaf,  many  forms  may  be  adopted. 
No.  I,  Fig.  142,  shows  a  beaded  and  rebated  joint,  the 
center  of  the  hinge  being  directly  under  the  joint.  Ex- 
cept for  dust-proof  or  light-tight  purposes,  the  rebate 
is  not  necessary.  This  joint  would  open  to  90  degrees. 
Should  the  leaf  or  door  require  to  fold  back  behind  the 
other  part,  the  hinge  should  be  placed  as  shown  in  No. 
2,  the  dotted  lines  showing  the  position  of  the  leaf  when 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


239 


folded  back.  Another  form  of  leaf  hanging  is  that 
known  as  a  "rule  joint,"  which  is  shown  closed  in  No. 
3,  and  open  in  No.  4.  This  has  the  advantage  of  con- 
cealing the  hinge,  and  making  a  better  finish  when  open 


Figure  143 

than  otherwise  would  be  the  case ;  the  joint  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  get  true,  but  always  repays  the  labor  in  effect. 
A  variation  of  this  joint  is  shown  in  No.  5. 

Carcass  doors  are  generally  hung  as  shown  in  No. 
i,  Fig.  143,  a  bead  the  size  of  the  knuckle  being  run 
down  to  break  the  joint,  and  the  hinge  rebated  into  the 


240  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

door  its  entire  thickness.  No.  2  shows  the  method  of 
hanging  on  to  the  ends  of  a  carcass,  where  the  full 
clearance  of  the  door  is  desired,  such  as  would  be  the 
case  in  a  cupboard  fitted  with  sliding  trays.  No.  3 
shows  the  same  method,  but  with  air-tight  bead  for  a 
cabinet  or  show-case. 

Center  hanging,  as  for  wardrobe  doors,  is  shown  in 
Nos.  4  and  5,  the  door  being  set  back  in  a  rebate,  or 
having  a  pilaster  planted  on  to  hide  the  joint.  Some- 
times this  joint  is  made  on  the  rule  principle,  but  this 
adds  to  the  expense. 

Special  hinges,  such  as  are  made  for  card-tables, 
bureaus,  pianos,  &c.,  while  varying  in  shape  and  size  to 
suit  requirements,  are  fitted  in  exactly  the  same  manner 
as  the  foregoing  illustrations  indicate. 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


241 


ft? 


"Q- 


.jan  ! 


k-io*"-- 


•^a" 


LL 


i  , 
j 

ii 


242  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


SOME  PRACTICAL  EXAMPLES. 

It  is  not  our  intention  to  offer  much  in  the  line  of 
practical  examples,  showing  details,  dimensions  of  ma- 
terials and  methods  of  making  such  examples ;  but  it  is 
thought  a  few  instances  specified  in  full,  may  prove  of 
use  to  the  apprentice  and  younger  workmen,  who  may 
want  to  "make  things"  during  their  leisure  hours,  or  at 
odd  times.  We  start  off  with  a  piece  of  work  in  the  so- 
called  mission  style  and  which  is  easy  to  make.  This 
makes  a  good  table  for  a  library,  a  den  or  an  office.  Be- 
sides fulfilling  its  purpose  as  a  library  table,  it  can  be 
used  as  a  bookcase,  where  the  library  is  very  small,  and 
for  a  writing  desk.  The  writing  materials  can  be  kept  in 
the  drawer  and  the  absence  of  a  lower  shelf  makes  it 
possible  to  put  the  feet  well  under  the  table  without 
interference. 

The  best  lumber  to  use  is  oak,  plain  or  quartered,  as 
suits  the  convenience  and  pocket-book  of  the  builder. 
Order  it  from  the  mill  as  follows  and  insist  on  its  being 
well  sanded  before  you  accept  it,  as  this  greatly  lessens 
the  labor  involved  in  its  building. 

1  piece  42x28x5^ -inch  oak. 

2  pieces  I2^x28x^-inch  oak. 
2  pieces  9^x28x^5 -inch  oak. 
4  pieces  29x2^x2^ -inch  oak. 
2  pieces  24^x2^ x^ -inch  oak. 
i  piece  I9x4^x%-inch  oak. 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


243 


i  piece   I4x2>^x%-inch  oak. 
i  piece   I9x4x%-inch  oak. 
i  piece  I9x2^x%-inch  oak. 

1  piece   1 9x3  %x;!^ -inch  pine. 

2  pieces   17x3^x^2 -inch  pine. 
6  pieces  I9x3x^-inch  pine. 


^ 


Figure  145 

Three-eighth  inch  dowel  pins  should  be  used  to  fasten 
the  shelves  and  top  onto  the  legs,  and  if  you  run  them 
through  the  legs,  cover  the  ends  with  wooden  buttons. 
The  drawer  linings  can  be  nailed  in  place  as  the  nail- 
heads  will  not  show,  and  the  other  pieces  can  be  screwed 
in  place. 


244  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

If  desired,  birch  or  other  hard-wood  may  be  used  in 
lieu  of  oak,  and  the  whole  may  be  stained  to  suit  the 
taste. 


Figure  146 

The  illustrations  show  the  method  of  construction  and 
positions  of  rails,  &c.,  and  as  they  are  all  figured,  show- 
ing lengths  and  positions,  there  will  be  no  trouble  in 
laying  the  table  out  or  assembling  the  parts. 

Fig.  144,  shows  a  general  plan  and  side  elevation, 
and  Fig.  145  shows  end  elevation,  while  Fig.  146, 
gives  a  perspective  view  of  the  finished  work. 

Another  Mission  table  is  shown  in  perspective  at  Fig. 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


245 


147.  This  table  is  quite  simple  and  may  be  easily  made 
by  an  apprentice  or  any  person  who  understands  the  use 
of  ordinary  woodworking  tools.  The  table  is  equally 
suitable  for  use  in  the  parlor,  library  or  living  room. 


Figure  147 


Quarter-sawed  oak  is  the  most  suitable  wood  to  use, 
and  can  be  finished  with  a  dark  mission  stain. 

Fig.  148  is  the  side  plan  and  dimensions  of  the  table. 
The  bottom  footboard  can  be  made  twelve  inches  wide 
and  held  in  place  with  three  round-head  brass  screws  at 
each  end,  which  will  make  it  very  strong  and  neat  in 
appearance. 

Fig.  149  shows  all  dimensions  and  specifications  for 
the  ends.  The  top  and  bottom  rails  are  Y%  inch  thick, 
while  the  slats  are  only  £4  inch. 


246 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


The  top  is  held  to  the  frame  by  glueing  cleats  on 
the  inside  of  the  top  rails,  then  running  screws  through 
them  into  the  top. 


Figure  149 


Figure  148 


All  the  joints  are  tenon  and  mortise  and  glued.  The 
ends  are  glued  and  clamped  first,  then  the  top  side  rails, 
while  the  bottom  foot -board  comes  last. 

These  two  examples  exhibit  the  whole  method  of 
Mission  furniture  construction,  and  are  quite  sufficient 
to  serve  our  purposes. 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  247 

SIDEBOARD  FOR  THE  WOODWORKING 
BEGINNER. 

The  sideboard  which  is  shown  in  perspective  without 
the  drawers  by  Fig.  1 50,  has  been  designed  specially  for 
those  with  limited  experience,  and  in  its  construction 
mortises,  tenons,  and  dovetails  are  avoided.  For  fixing 
the  various  parts,  glue  and  nails  are  only  required. 

Planed  pine  boarding  as  used  for  building  purposes, 
will  be  found  suitable;  and  when  finished  the  job  may 
be  stained  and  varnished  to  suit.  Fig.  151,  is  a  half 
front  elevation,  and  Fig.  1 52,  end  elevation,  each  drawer 
to  scale. 

The  measurements  may  be  taken  from  these  two 
Figures,  but  for  simplicity  the  finished  sizes  of  the 
various  pieces  of  wood  are  as  follows:  i-in.  stuff 
(finishing  about  %  in.  thick),  top  A  (Fig.  151  and 
152),  4  ft.  6  in.  by  I  ft.  8  in. ;  ends  B,  3  ft.  by  i  ft.  5  in. ; 
bottom  C,  3  ft.  ioy2  in.  by  I  ft.  5  in. ;  upper  ends  D, 
2  ft.  6  in.  by  Sl/2  in. ;  cornice  E,  4  ft.  5  in.  by  iol/2  in. ; 
pediment  F,  4  ft.  by  6  in.  (widest  part)  ;  drawers 
bearer  G,  3  ft.  iol/2  in.  by  $l/2  in. ;  division  H  between 
drawers,  i  ft.  5  in.  by  4^2  in. ;  brackets  J,  6  in.  by  5  in. ; 
shaped  span-rail  K,  3  ft.  iol/2  in.  by  3  in. ;  and  corner 
shelves,  11  in.  by  7  in.  The  pieces  of  ^-in.  stuff  are: 
For  the  doors  (made  of  three  thicknesses  of  stuff),  four 
stiles  L,'  2  ft.  i  in.  by  3  in.;  four  cross  rails  i  ft.  $14 
in.  by  3  in.,  and  for  the  back  face  of  the  doors,  four 


248 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


stiles  i  ft.  7^2"  in.  by  2^/4  in.,  and  four  cross  rails  I  ft. 
n^  in.  by  2^4  in.  The  ^2 -in.  stuff  required  (finishing 
about  y%  in.)  is:  Two  door  panels,  I  ft.  7^  in.  by  i  ft. 


Figure  150 

5^4  in-  wide;  carcass  back  M  (Fig.  152),  sufficient 
matchboarding  3  ft.  high  at  the  ends  and  4  ft.  in  width ; 
for  drawer  fronts,  two  pieces  N  (Fig.  153),  i  ft.  10% 
in.  by  4^2  in.;  two  pieces  O  (Fig.  153),  i  ft.  10^  in. 
by  4l/2  in.;  for  the  drawer  sides  P  (Fig.  154),  four 
pieces  i  ft.  4^4  in-  by  4l/2  in. ;  drawer  backs  Q  ( Fig. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  249 


Figure  152 


250 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


154),  two  pieces  i  ft.  iol/s  in.  by  ^/2  in. ;  for  the  upper 
part  of  the  sideboard  (made  up  of  three  thicknesses  of 
stuff),  two  front  stiles  R  (Fig.  151),  2.  ft.  6  in.  by 
2^4  in. ;  two  inner  stiles  S,  I  ft.  4  in.  by  2)4  in. ;  cross 
rails  T,  3  ft.  6  in.  by  3^2  in. ;  cross  rails  U  and  V,  3  ft. 
6  in.  by  2^4  in.;  panel  W,  3  ft.  6l/>  in.  by  6l/2  in.; 


Figure   153 

panel  X,  I  ft.  4^/2  in.  by  I  ft.  4^2  in.  by  8^2  in.  For 
inner  layer  Y  and  back  layer  Z  (see  Figs.  155  and  156, 
and  157),  allow  the  stiles  and  rails  to  be  l/4  in.  narrower 
than  the  front  layer  R,  S,  T,  U,  and  V  (Fig.  151). 
The  shaped  headings  of  the  panels  in  the  doors  and  top 
part  are  ^  in.  thick.  The  top  and  ends  being  wider 
than  the  usual  width  of  deal  boards,  these  will  have  to 
be  jointed  and  glued.  Whitewood  or  pine  can  be  ob- 
tained wide  enough  without  joining;  both  woods  are 
very  suitable  for  varnishing. 

In  beginning  the  construction,  the  wood  should  be 
first  planed  to  thickness,  then  the  front  edges,  next  the 
ends  squared  up,  and  finally  taken  to  width.  The  bot- 
tom C  is  fixed  with  2l/> -in.  oval  nails  driven  through  the 
ends  B.  Oval  nails  have  small  heads  and  are  less  un- 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


251 


sightly  when  the  work  is  filled  up  for  varnishing  or 
polishing.  Next  the  bearer  G  and  then  top  A  are  nailed 
in  the  same  way.  When  nailing,  if  the  nails  are  driven 


Figure  155 

slantwise,  alternately  leaning  towards  the  front  and 
back,  they  will  act  like  dovetails,  and  prevent  the  top 
from  lifting  or  the  ends  drawing  away  from  the  bot- 


Figure  156 

torn.  The  latter  may  also  be  prevented  by  screwing 
a  strip  to  the  under  side  of  the  bottom  C  and  to  the 
ends  as  shown  in  Fig.  158.  Note  that  the  top  projects 


Figure  157 


Figure  158 


il/2  in.  at  the  front  and  3  in.  at  each  end.    The  division 
H  may  be  fixed  with  2-in.  nails. 

The  matchboarding  back  M  may  now  be  fixed  with 


252 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


i^4-in.  nails.  The  outer  edges  M  (Fig.  152)  should 
be  worked  half-round  in  section  with  a  smoothing  plane 
and  course  glasspaper;  it  will  then  look  like  a  bead 
moulding  worked  on  the  back  edges  of  the  ends. 


Figure  159 

The  doors  made  up  of  two  thicknesses  may  next  be 
taken  in  hand.  Fig.  159  shows  the  stiles  L  fixed  with 
glue  and  nails  to  the  back  cross  rails ;  the  front  rails  and 
back  stiles  are  next  fitted.  Note  that  the  back  stiles 
and  rails  are  l/4  in.  narrower  than  the  front,  so  as  to 
provide  a  rebate  for  the  panels;  see  Fig.  160,  which  is 
an  enlarged  section  of  the  door,  stiles,  and  panel.  When 
the  doors  are  together,  the  shaped  headings  may  be 
fitted;  or  for  a  better  construction,  the  stiles  and  top 
rail  could  be  rebated  to  receive  it. 

The  drawer  sides  are  nailed  to  the  inner  front  O 
(Fig.  153)  and  back  Q  (Fig.  154).  Strips  A  (Fig. 
154)  are  nailed  to  the  sides  for  the  bottom  to  rest  on, 
the  latter  passing  under  the  back  Q.  The  outer  drawer 
front  N  is  nailed  to  the  drawer  sides  and  glued  to  O. 
Of  course,  this  method  of  construction  is  only  to  avoid 
dovetailing  and  ploughed  grooves  for  the  bottom. 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


253 


The  framing  of  the  top  part  (Fig.  161)  is  fitted 
between  ends  D  (Figs.  151  and  152)  and  under  the 
shelf  E,  and  rests  on  the  top  A.  The  method  of  con- 
struction is  similar  to  the  doors,  the  joints  of  the  outer 
face  being  as  shown  in  Fig.  151.  The  middle  portion  Y 


Figure  161 

is  as  shown  in  Fig.  161,  and  the  back  face  Z  (Figs. 
J55>  J56,  and  157)  the  same  as  the  front  face  in  Fig. 
151.  The  center  mirror  may  be  of  bevelled-edge  or 
plain  silvered  plate;  or  if  desired  a  wood  panel  could 
be  fixed.  The  half  circular  headings  are  fixed  as  de- 
scribed for  the  doors.  The  corner  shelves,  ends  D,  and 
shelf  E  are  fixed  to  the  framing  with  2-in.  nails. 

For  ease  of  handling,  the  upper  part  should  be  fixed 


254 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


to  the  lower  by  driving  screws  through  the  under  side 
of  the  top  A  into  the  ends  D,  also  into  the  back  framing 


H. 


Figure  162 


Figure  164 


(Fig.  161 ) .  Suitable  brass  or  copper  handles  for  doors 
and  drawers  will  add  to  the  appearance  of  the  side- 
board. 

For  staining  the  wood,  use  permanganate  of  potash 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  255 


R. 


Figure  163 


256  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

dissolved  in  hot  water;  less  potash  for  oak  than  for 
walnut  or  mahogany.  The  correct  shade  may  be  got 
by  experimenting  on  an  odd  piece  of  wood.  When  the 
stain  is  dry,  give  a  coating  of  glue  size.  Then  thin 
coats  of  varnish.  When  all  parts  show  a  gloss,  put 
aside  for  twenty-four  hours,  then  glasspaper,  and  apply 
the  finishing  coats  of  varnish  or  French  polish.  Bis- 
marck brown  added  to  the  varnish  will  give  mahogany 
color. 

We  show  herewith  in  Figs.  162,  163,  164  and  165, 
part  elevations  and  details  of  two  low-cost  sideboards, 
to  make  will  be  excellent  practice  for  the  younger 
workmen. 

Fig.  162  includes  center  and  two  small  side  mirrors  in 
upper  part  and  three  drawers,  two  cupboards  and  center 
recess  in  lower  part.  Height  from  A  to  B,  12  in. ; 
B  to  C,  2  ft.  9  in. ;  C  to  D,  3  ft.  3  in. ;  cupboard  door, 
say,  23  in.  by  17  in.;  depth  of  drawers,  5  in.  outside. 
Turning  is  introduced,  with  alternative  details  for  selec- 
tion. Note  swell  and  taper  to  turned  column  B,  C,  2^/4- 
in.  swell,  and  see  end  elevation  at  Fig.  164,  with  3%- 
in.  column  receded.  Corner  B,  with  dentils  and  frieze, 
about  4  in. ;  lined  up  top  C,  2^/4  in.  moulded;  I  in.  solid 
fronts  to  drawers,  faced  with  l/2  in.  moulded  and  mitred 
strips.  One  5~in.,  or  two  3^2-in.  lacquered  brass 
handles.  Hobbs'  four  lever  locks.  Panel  at  E  may 
repeat  on  end,  less  capping.  Shelf  inside  cupboard, 
i  in.  moulded  thumb;  2-in.  brass  butt  hinges;  i-in. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  257 


0 


Figure  165 


258  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  166 


Figure  167 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  259 

ends,  and  I  ft.  9  in.  back  to  front;  i%-in.  posts;  i-in. 
door  stiles  and  rails ;  bottom  under  drawers  through  to 
back;  flush  framed  back,  %  in.,  let  in  rebates;  i-in. 
bevel  to  mirror,  il/2-'m.  framing  to  back.  Fig.  2  all 
cupboard  doors,  wood  panels  moulded;  center  mirror, 
24  in.  by  28  in. ;  back  above  F,  i^}/2  in.  high;  F  to  G, 
3  ft.  i  in. ;  upper  door  I,  19^  in.  by  1 1  in. ;  inside  depth, 
8j/2  in. ;  lower  side  door,1  2  ft.  6l/>  in.  by  14  in.  If  a 
leaf  is  cut  in  posts  as  indicated,  it  will  ensure  a  good 
effect.  The  columns  supporting  upper  cupboard  will 
rest  on  toes  at  G,  returning  to  intersect  with  base  mould- 
ing of  back.  The  sideboard  upper  backs  is  fixed  to 
lower  carcass  by  dowelling  into  top,  and  also  by  con- 
tinuing the  uprights,  some  9  in.  or  12  in.,  below  top  to 
be  screwed  to  carcass  back.  Either  canted,  as  shown, 
or  quadrant  corners  would  be  suitable  for  center  mirror. 
All  shelves  are  indicated  by  an  outlined  base.  Fig. 
165  gives  a  few  details: — A  refers  to  (Fig.  162)  sec- 
tion, 1 24  in.,  with  top  turning  enlarged  (J)  ;  K,  small 
spindles  in  lower  carcass;  B,  enlarged  detail  for  cornice 
frieze  and  column  in  Fig.  162  and  cornice,  etc.,  F 
(Fig.  163).  The  pattern  shown  in  detail  at  L  may  be 
carved  in  frieze  with  good  effect.  M,  section  for  mould- 
ing round  center  mirror;  N,  alternative  to  lesser 
columns  at  C  (Fig.  164)  ;  O,  dotted  line  of  shelf  (Fig. 
162)  ;  C,  G,  detail  for  table  top  (Figs.  162  and  163) 
of  i-in.  stuff  lined  up;  D,  detail  for  Fig.  162  at  floor 
line,  ij^-in.  section.  Door  frames  should  be  mortised 


260 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


Figure  169 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  261 

right  through,  as  at  P,  and  moulded  oriels,  the  geo- 
metrical framing  being  mitred  up  and  turned  in  to 
intersect  to  patterns  shown.  A  section  through  lower 
carcass  occurs  at  Q  for  pilasters  and  plain  moulded 
panels  front  and  ends.  Another  method  is  indicated 
by  cut  at  R  suitable  for  plain  ends,  vertical  grain,  or 
a  9-in.  upper  end  rail,  with  panelling  to  match  E 
(Fig.  162). 

The  half-Front  elevation  and  details  of  sideboard  in 
Fig.  1 66  is  a  little  more  pretentious  than  those  pre- 
ceding it,  and  of  course  will  tax  the  skill  of  the  work- 
man proportionately,  but  we  do  not  think  it  beyond  the 
ability  of  the  ordinary  trained  workman.  The  eleva- 
tion sections  and  details  have  all  been  drawn  to  scale, 
and  are,  therefore,  measurable. 

Fig.  1 66  shows  the  half  elevation.  Fig.  167  shows 
section  of  lower  portion  and  mirror  portion  of  upper 
works.  Fig.  167,  is  the  upper  part  of  board  in  section. 
The  mouldings  in  section  require  no  explanations. 

Cabinet-makers  as  a  rule  do  not  often  have  calls  to 
make  Grandfather's  clock  cases,  but,  it  does  sometimes 
fall  to  the  lot  of  the  workman  to  make  a  case,  so  it  may 
not  be  amiss  to  give  one  or  two  simple  designs  on  this 
work,  giving  dimensions  and  style  of  finish.  The 
proper  material  to  be  employed  in  making  this  case  is 
mahogany,  but  of  course,  walnut  or  quartered  oak — 
darkened — will  answer  very  well,  but  in  either  case, 
good  workmanship  and  fine  finish  will  be  necessary  to 
give  the  clock  an  artistic  appearance. 


262 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  263 

The  sizes  given  in  this  example  are  suitable  for  a 
clock  with  12  in.  dial,  and  the  remarks  which  follow 
should  render  the  setting  out  a  simple  matter.  (A) 
The  clock  case  Fig.  169,  consists  of  sides,  front,  and 
corner  only,  so  that  it  may  be  pushed  on  from  the  front, 
along  the  moulding  E,  the  back  ends  of  sides  being  re- 
bated to  fit  over  the  back — an  arrangement  which  ren- 
ders the  clock  easily  accessible.  Height  through  center 
of  dial  from  bottom  of  door  to  top  of  cornice,  2$l/2  in. 
Height  of  door  in  center,  21  in. ;  the  rise  being  4%  in. ; 
width,  i$y4  in.;  frame,  i^  in.,  out  of  ^-in.  stuff, 
and  glazed.  The  door  shuts  on  to  an  inner  frame  of 
same  size,  out  of  %-in.  stuff,  well  screwed,  with  glued 
blocks.  The  ends,  Sy2  in.  wide  (cut  out  in  center,  and 
glazed,  as  G),  and  continued  through  cornice  up  to 
springing  of  top  curve ;  frieze  and  cornice  are  built  up 
thereon.  The  top  or  "roof"  of  case  is  built  up  of  %  -in. 
stuff,  bradded  or  screwed 'to  upper  member  of  cornice, 
and  to  top  back  rail  on  case  cut  to  same  curve,  both 
being  rebated  for  the  purpose.  The  cornice  projects 
il/4  in.  over  sides,  being  supported  by  columns  tapering 
from  %  in.  to  I  in.  diam.  These  may  either  be  plain 
or  mounted,  with  brass  Corinthian  capitals  and  bases, 
the  shafts  then  being  reeded.  The  upper  finials  are  also 
of  brass,  and  impart  a  most  pleasing  finish  to  the  top. 
It  should  be  added  that  the  clock  movement  rests  upon 
ledges  about  4^2  in.  high,  which  also  serves  as  guides 
to  the  loose  case,  and  steady  it  when  in  position.  Body 


264 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


of  clock  (B)  :  This  is  constructed  of  ^4 -in.  stuff — 
front  framed  (dowelled  or  rebated  15  in.  wide)  into 
1^4  in.  posts,  the  outer  corners  of  which  are  canted  to 
receive  il/4  in.  turned  pillars.  Sides  7  in.  wide,  re- 
bated flush  into  posts  and  top  and  bottom  rails,  and 
also  rebated  to  receive  back.  Hide  joints  of  rebates 


Figure  171 

with  a  scratched  brad.  Back  of  /4-in.  stuff  shaped  at 
top  to  fit  upper  curve.  Stiffen  the  joints  with  well- 
fitting  blocks  along  the  inner  angles,  using  good  strong 
glue  for  the  purpose.  The  body  B  beds  down  about  6 
in.  lower  than  the  upper  moulding  of  the  base  F ;  sides 
(9  in.  wide),  front  (19  in.  wide),  and  back  of  which 
are  rebated  together  and  blocked.  All  mouldings  are, 
of  course,  mitred  round  sides  and  front  only.  The 
door  B  (of  ^4 -in.  stuff),  is  rebated  to  shut  on  to  front. 
frame,  and  projects  l/\.  in.  only.  The  moulding  and 
carved  fans  at  C  might  be  further  embellished  by  an 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


265 


inlaid  oval — in  marquetry — and  let  into  center  of'  panel. 

The  old  clock  shown  in  Fig.  170,  is  English,  and  was 

designed  and  made  by  the  celebrated  Fromanteel,  of 


Figure  172 


Figure  173 


London,  whose  name  is  engraved  on  the  dial  between 
V.  and  VII.  and  over  the  figures  registering  the  date 
of  the  month.  A  minute  dial  occupies  the  upper  portion 


Figure  174 

of  the  main  dial,  which  is  entirely  of  brass,  the  numeral 
disc  being  raised  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  above  the 
central  portion.  The  minutes  are  numbered  throughout 
the  circumference  over  the  hours,  and  these  latter  are 
divided  by  fleur-de-lis.  The  hands  are  of  beautiful  de- 
sign in  steel,  and  the  clock  case  is  in  oak.  The  ball 


266  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

terminals  are  gilt,  and  screw  into  little  wooden  bases, 
as  shown.  At  either  angle  beyond  the  dial  are  spandrels 
of  cast-brass  ornament  in  coarse  style,  representing  two 
cupids  bearing  crossed  sceptres  and  supporting  a  regal 
crown.  The  screw  which  fixes  this  ornament  has  a 
Tudor  rose  for  its  head,  and  forms  the  center  of  the 
composition. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  267 

HOW  TO  MAKE  A  CORNER  CHAIR. 
The  object,  in  the  present  design,  is'to  make  a  corner 
chair  capable  of  affording  support  to  the  shoulders; 
and  in  this  respect  the  design  annexed  is  somewhat 
original.  The  selection  of  the  wood  for  same  is  a 
matter,  of  taste;  black  walnut,  mahogany  (stained 
dark),  rosewood,  or  dull  black  are  all  suitable.  To 
save  expense,  it  might,  moreover,  be  made  without 
the  .under-framing  or  listing  shown,  although  the 
strength  would  be  reduced  without  it.  But  our  purpose 
for  the  moment  is,  "how  to  make,"  and  a  few  practical 
hints  may  be  useful  on  that  point.  The  first  business  is 
to  produce  the  moulds  to  working  drawing  shown,  and 
as  an  inch  scale  is  adopted,  this  should  be  a  simple  mat- 
ter. Then  get  out  the  four  legs — i.  e.,  two  long  and 
two  short.  The  two  long  legs  must  be  out  of  2.  in. 
wood,  to  allow  of  throw  over  scroll  at  top ;  il/2  in.  wood 
will  do  nicely  for  the  short  ones.  The  seat  rails  must  be 
2  in.  solid  wood,  and  beech  cannot  be  used  except  for 
blocking,  as  all  the  wood  is  more  or  less  seen.  The  back 
might  be  il/2  in.  wood,  to  allow,  when  the  top  is  glued 
on,  for  shaping  back  and  front  to  bring  it  in  a  line  with 
the  top.  The  top  would  take  a  piece  of  4^2  in.  wood, 
to  allow  for  sweep.  Of  course  where  several  chairs 
are  made,  the  tops  can  be  marked  one  into  the  other,  and 
thus  waste  of  timber  avoided;  i%  in.  wood  will  be 
stout  enough  for  the  arms  and  brackets.  The  splat 


268 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


must  be  out  of  il/2  in.,  which  will  allow  for  stuffing 
rabbet. 

DRAWER  MAKING  AND  FITTING. 
It  is  often  said  that  a  man  who  can  make  and  fit  a 
drawer  well  can  make  almost  anything  in  constructive 


Figure  175 

woodwork.  This  is  probably  true,  with  some  reserva- 
tions, for  it  is  generally  accepted  as  a  good  test  of  a 
man's  skill,  and  we  have  no  doubt  that  beginners  find  it 
one  of  the  most  difficult  things  to  tackle,  especially  in 
the  preparation  and  "setting  out."  The  general  method 
is  as  follows,  applied  to  an  average  sized  drawer: — 
Carefully  select  the  stuff — i.  e.,  Y2  in.,  finishing  %  in., 
for  sides  and  back ;  y%  in.  or  Y±  in-  f°r  the  bottom,  and 
i  in.,  to  finish  %  in.  or  ^  in.,  for  the  front.  All  the 
stuff  should  be  dry  and  clean,  as  well  as  straight  and 
even  in  the  grain,  and  each  piece  must  be  planned  up 
true  and  gauged  to  an  equal  thickness.  Care  must  be 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


269 


taken  with  the  face  marks,  so  that  they  can  be  easily 
read  as  indicating  certain  positions. 

A  handy  and  general  workshop  method  is  shown  in 
Figs.  172  and  173,  marked  on  the  front  of  the  drawer, 


Figure  176 

and  the  back  of  the  back,  and  (2)  on  the  front  end  of 
the  sides.  These  marks  indicate  the  outside  and  bot- 
tom edge  of  each  piece,  as  well  in  the  giving  the  num- 
ber; and  if  this  simple  rule  is  applied  there  should  be 
no  mistake  made.  Where  a  set  of  drawers  are  the 
same  depth,  the  same  number  should  be  written  on  the 
bearer  or  carcase.  In  all  cases  an  allowance  must  be 
made  on  the  width  and  length  of  the  front  and  sides 
for  fitting,  and  J/s  in.  is  ample  for  this ;  but  the  sides  can 
be  squared  on  the  shooting  board  at  each  end  to  the 
length  required.  It  is  never  a  good  plan  to  let  a  drawer 
stop  on  to  the  back  of  a  job,  so  the  sides  should  be  at 
least  y2  in.  or  y±  in.  less  in  length  than  the  inside  of  the 
carcase. 

After  preparing  the  stuff,  the  next  job  is  to  fit  it. 
Carefully  joint  one  end  of  the  front,  and  fit  it  to  the 
corresponding  end  of  the  opening;  then  mark  off  length 


270  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

at  the  other  end,  and  fit  tightly  in  the  same,  but  leave 
the  top  edge  until  the  final  fit  of  the  drawer.  Then 
"run"  or  fit  the  sides  in — remembering  the  marks — 
taking  care  they  fit  tight  from  end  to  end,  and  then 
plane  the  ends  of  the  back  to  fit  the  opening  in  the  same 
way  as  the  front.  The  stuff  is  now  ready  for  gauging 
and  the  cutting  gauge  is  the  best  of  the  two  to  use. 
Gauge  the  lap  on  the  ends  of  the  front  first  (see  distance 
A  on  Fig.  174),  and  then  on  both  sides  of  the  front 
ends  of  the  sides  (see  A,  Fig.  1/5).  Then  set  the 
gauge  to  the  thickness  of  the  sides,  and  strike  a  line 
from  the  ends  on  the  inside  face  of  the  front  (see  B, 
Fig.  174)  ;  and  this  same  line  must  be  gauged  from  the 
end  and  on  both  sides  of  the  back.  Lastly,  the  thick- 
ness of  the  back  must  be  gauged  in  a  like  manner  from 
the  back  ends  of  the  sides.  It  will  be  noted  that,  even 
if  a  dozen  drawers  are  to  be  made,  the  gauge  is  shifted 
only  three  times,  and  only  twice  if  the  back  is  the  same 
thickness  as  the  sides,  which  should  always  happen 
when  the  wood  is  obtainable.  In  gauging  the  thick- 
nesses, care  must  be  taken  to  set  the  gauge  a  little 
under,  but  never  over,  or  a  bad  fit  is  bound  to  follow. 
It  also  might  happen  that  the  best  planed  stuff  will 
"cast,"  and  the  sides  may  cast  hollow  in  the  length ; 
whenever  this  does  occur  the  round  side  should  always 
be  put  outside. 

The  stuff  is  now  ready  for  setting  out  and  cutting 
the  dovetails.    Men  of  experience  are  able  to  just  mark 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  271 

off  distances  and  cut  the  dovetails  quickly  and  regu- 
larly. To  those  who  are  less  skilled  and  beginning,  a 
good  and  simple  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  176.  On  the 
front  end  of  one  of  the  sides  square  down — with  pen- 
cil— the  lines  I  and  2,  y%  in.  from  each  edge,  and  then 
divide  the  space  between  these  lines  for  the  required 
number  of  dovetails.  The  lines  will  then  become  the 
center  of  the  pins.  To  set  out  the  dovetails,  mark 
i-i6th  in.  each  side  of  the  line  at  the  top  and  y&  in.  at 
the  bottom ;  join  these  points,  and  the  dovetails  are 
given.  The  same  method  can  be  adopted  on  the  fronts 
if  the  holes  are  to  be  cut  first.  There  are  various  meth- 
ods and  many  opinions  as  to  which  should  be  done  first, 
but  the  safest  course  is  to  use  the  one  you  know  and  can 
best  apply  to  the  work  at  hand.  We  know  of  no  sim- 
pler way  of  setting  out  dovetails  than  the  one  explained ; 
and  it  will  be  noted  that  the  half  pin  on  the  outside  is 
left  strong  enough,  whilst  the  spacing  of  the  pins  is  reg- 
ular and  at  a  suitable  angle. 


272  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

TO  MAKE  DRAWERS  SLIDE  EASILY. 

In  many  cases  when  a  drawer  sticks  it  will  be  found 
that  the  place  in  which  it  slides,  or  ought  to  slide,  is  the 
part  that  requires  most  attention. 

A  drawer  to  run  well  must  be  perfectly  parallel  back 
and  front  all  around,  except  that  the  sides  and  top  and 
bottom  may  be  eased  off  to  the  extent  of  1/16  in.  to  % 
in.  at  the  extreme  ends,  this  easing  off  to  extend  to 
about  y2  in.  from  the  end.  For  small  drawers  much 
less  will  be  sufficient ;  large  drawers  may  have  a  little 
more  taken  off. 

The  runners,  that  is,  the  wood  against  which  the 
drawer  slides  in  its  receptacle,  should  not  be  quite  paral- 
lel, but  a  little  wider  at  the  back,  or  the  drawer  will 
never  run  well.  Here  again  it  is  impossible  to  give 
exact  measurements.  A  drawer  I  ft.  wide,  6  in.  high, 
and  i  ft.  6  in.  long  would  require  the  space  at  the  back 
to  be  about  %  in.  wider  and  higher  than  the  front. 

One  great  fault  with  drawers  is  that  they  "wind," 
that  is,  if  placed  on  a  perfectly  flat  table,  all  four  cor- 
ners will  not  touch  the  level  surface.  This  is  most 
difficult  to  rectify.  The  cause  may  be  bad  workman- 
ship or  unseasoned  wood  which  has  twisted  in  drying. 
The  high  parts  may  be  planed  off,  but  then  the  drawer 
will  be  small,  and  must  be  made  up  to  its  proper  size 
by  gluing  on  strips  of  wood ;  or  the  receptacle  may  be 
reduced  in  size.  The  latter  is  usually  the  easier  to  do. 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  273 

Suppose  that  the  top  long  drawer  of  the  4-ft.  chest 
of  drawers  which  has  stuck  half-way  is  to  be  rectified. 
Do  not  use  too  much  force  in  pulling  the  handles,  or 
they  may  come  off,  or  the  whole  front  come  away  from 
the  sides.  Unscrew  the  back  from  the  carcase,  and 
while  a  helper  pulls  at  the  handles,  gently  tap  the  ends 
at  the  back  with  a  hammer,  a  piece  of  wood  being  inter- 
posed endwise  of  the  grain  to  act  as  a  punch.  Take 
care  to  hit  the  end  of  the  drawer  that  is  farthest  in.  If 
this  does  not  move  the  drawer,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
remove  the  partition  between  the  drawers  by  sliding  it 
out,  and  then  the  runners  at  the  sides  of  the  carcase, 
by  gently  prising  them  out,  first  previousl  yremoving 
the  screws  if  necessary. 

The  drawer  must  be  badly  jammed  if  it  still  remains 
fixed,  and  removal  to  a  warmer  room  had  better  be 
tried,  and  a  little  time  allowed  before  resorting  to 
stronger  measures. 

When  the  drawer  is  removed,  first  replace  the  par- 
tition and  runners,  and  ascertain  whether  the  latter  are 
wider  apart  at  the  back  than  at  the  front.  This  is  best 
done  by  cutting  a  strip  of  wood  the  exact  length  of  the 
opening  of  the  front,  and  sliding  it  to  the  back.  If  not, 
the  runners  must  be  reduced.  Or  it  may  happen  that 
there  is  no  runner,  or  that  it  has  been  forced  out  of 
place. 

Having  got  the  runners  parallel,  except  for  the  lit- 
tle play  mentioned,  next  see  that  they  are  straight  from 


274  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

back  to  front ;  the  sides  of  the  carcase  may  have  bulged 
and  bent  them.  Afterwards  do  the  top  and  bottom  in 
a  similar  way.  Before  and  during  the  process  of  adjust- 
ment, see  that  the  runners  do  not  wind  with  the  front. 
This  can  be  ascertained  by  placing  the  eye  about  3  in. 
from  the  front  of  the  bottom  rail  on  which  the  drawer 
slides  and  level  with  it,  and  observing  that  the  runner 
ends  are  in  the  same  plane,  by  looking  first  at  one  end 
and  then  the  other  without  moving  the  eye.  This  re- 
quires practice,  and  is  termed  "taking  it  out  of  wind." 
Repeat  the  process  for  the  under  side  of  the  top  rail,  and 
adjust  the  runners-  as  required. 

Having  got  the  carcase  right,  next  examine  the 
drawer  itself  for  winding,  and  whether  it  is  parallel  and 
straight  from  back  to  front.  If  the  sides  bulge,  they  can 
sometimes  be  knocked  in  a  little.  If  not,  the  surplus 
must  be  planed  off,  first  making  a  pencil  mark  where  the 
parts  are  not  to  be  planed. 

Now  try  the  drawer  to  see  if  it  will  run  in.  If  it  goes 
half  way,  take  off  a  little  with  a  plane  (or  scraper  if 
the  wood  is  hard)  where  it  is  tight.  Run  it  in  and  out 
several  times,  and  see  where  it  shines,  and  carefully 
remove  the  shine.  Avoid  taking  any  off  the  edge  of  the 
front  as  long  as  possible,  or  it  will  be  too  small  and  a 
bad  fit.  In  shutting  or  opening  a  well-fitting  drawer,  a 
little  friction  should  be  felt  for  the  whole  length. 

The  sides  and  top  and  bottom  edges  should  next  be 
well  smoothed  with  middle  and  fine  sand  paper  until 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  275 

they  shine.  Finally  they  and  the  runners  should  be 
rubbed  with  spermaceti  wax,  and  then  with  a  linen  rag, 
using  plenty  of  pressure.  Spermaceti  sometimes  crum- 
bles away  when  used.  If  so,  melt  it  at  a  low  heat  in  a 
jar,  pour  into  a  cardboard  box,  and  keep  it  there,  cutting 
down  the  edges  as  required.  Nothing  need  be  added, 
when  using  on  wood ;  but  for  the  joints  of  brass  mathe- 
matical instruments,  add  10  per  cent  of  vaseline. 


276  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


VENEERING,   STAINING  AND  FINISHING. 

Veneering  which  we  will  first  deal  with,  consists  of 
laying  an  expensive  or  highly  figured  wood  upon  a 
foundation  of  a  cheaper  or  more  common  wood.  It 
does  not  always  meet  with  approval,  the  prevailing  idea 
being  that  if  a  piece  of  cabinet-work  is  veneered  it  is 
cheap;  but  a  moment's  consideration  would  convince 
the  most  incredulous  that  the  finest  effects  in  the  works 
are  to  be  obtained  only  by  this  process.  It  is  a  fact  also 
that  veneering  gives  greater  strength  to  articles  of  fur- 
niture than  if  they  were  solidly  made.  Among  the 
valuable  woods  for  the  purpose  many  are  obtained  from 
the  far  East,  even  the  remote  Siam  and  the  Philippines 
furnishing  supplies.  Some  of  the  most  exquisitely  col- 
ored and  figured  woods  are  only  obtainable  in  small 
pieces,  and  are  used  for  ornamental  inlay  designs,  in 
devising  and  applying  which  the  Hollanders  are  so  ex- 
pert that  cabinets,  tables,  desks  and  other  articles  thus 
treated  by  them  are  imported  here  and  find  ready  sale. 

The  best  figured  and  most  ornamental  wood  is 
usually  to  be  found  at  the  butt  end  of  the  tree,  though 
good  mottle  may  be  obtained  at  the  junction  of  the 
trunk  and  limbs.  In  buying  timber  for  veneering  pur- 
poses, only  long  experience  can  determine  its  quality 
and  worth ;  the  external  appearance  is  not  always  a  true 
index  of  the  internal,  and  it  is  often  a  matter  of  chance, 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  277 


278  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

the  most  unlikely  stick  when  opened  up  turning  out  to 
be  finely-figured  wood. 

Cutting  Veneers. — Veneers  are  of  two  kinds — 
"sawn"  and  "knife-cut." 

"Sawn." — This  term  is  applied  to  all  veneers  that  are 
cut  by  saw.  The  log  is  placed  upon  a  travelling  plat- 
form, the  fine  saws  being  set  in  a  vertical  frame  and 
cutting  the  veneers  simultaneously  through  the  log. 
The  usual  number  of  veneers  to  the  inch  is  ten,  but,  if 
desired,  twelve  may  be  obtained;  the  latter  are,  how- 
ever, thin,  and  not  so  serviceable.  The  veneers  are  num- 
bered consecutively,  so  that  "match"  veneers  may  eas- 
ily be  determined.  The  ends  should  be  bound  with 
muslin  to  prevent  splitting.  Veneers  to  be  in  proper 
workable  order  must  be  kept  in  a  damp  place;  they 
are  then  much  more  pliable,  and  less  liable  to  crack. 
The  waste  of  timber  in  cutting  by  this  method  is. 
roughly  speaking,  about  ft  of  an  inch  per  inch  of 
thickness. 

"Knife-cut." — By  this  method  there  is  no  waste 
whatever.  The  log,  having  been  opened  up,  is  steamed, 
and,  while  saturated  with  moisture,  placed  under  the 
knife.  This  works  horizontally,  and  takes  off  the  thin- 
nest shaving  possible.  The  usual  number  of  veneers  ob- 
tained per  inch  of  thickness  is  from  thirty-six  to  forty ; 
they  are  therefore  almost  as  thin  as  paper,  and  not  at 
all  reliable  for  hard  wear  or  subsequent  scraping  and 
repolishing.  Knife-cut  veneers  should  only  be  used  on 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


279 


those  parts  of  a  job  that  are  not  liable  to  constant  wear ; 
the  only  advantage — and  that  a  doubtful  one — which 
they  possess  is  that  the  veneer  will  "lie"  more  readily 
upon  a  sweep  or  on  the  flat  owing  to  its  thinness,  and 


it 

m 


Figure  178 

with  a  reduction  in  time  there  is  a  corresponding  abate- 
ment in  price.  Apart  from  economic  reasons,  a  "sawn" 
veneer  should  always  be  used. 

Veneering. — Any  wood  is  suitable  for  veneering 
upon,  but  those  usually  selected  are  of  the  "bay-wood" 
or  pines.  The  foundation,  having  been  faced  up,  is 
"toothed"  by  a  special  hand  plane,  thus  imparting  a 
rough  surface  to  the  wood  which  will  enable  the  glue  to 
adhere  more  firmly.  A  solution  of  size  and  water  used 
hdt  is  next  applied  and  allowed  to  dry.  The  heart  side 
of  a  board  should  always  be  veneered  upon,  and  the 


280 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


reverse  side  damped  with  water  to  prevent  the  board 
going  round  when  sized.  Lay  the  board  face  down  un- 
til ready  for  veneering.  The  veneer  may  now  be  laid, 
and  can  be  done  in  two  ways — by  hand  or  machine. 


Figure  179 

For  small  works,  mouldings,  or  sweeps,  use  the  former 
method ;  for  panels,  carcase  ends,  etc.,  the  latter. 

Process  I. — Quickly  brush  over  with  hot  glue,  tak- 
ing care  to  spread  it  evenly.  The  veneer  may  then  be 
laid  down,  pressed  by  hand  to  remove  the  air,  and 
squeezed  down  by  means  of  a  "caul,"  removing  all 
blisters  and  superfluous  glue.  A  weighted  board  then 
should  be  placed  on  the  job  until  the  following  day. 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET   MAKER 


281 


In  the  case  of  sweeps,  either  a  steel  bow-cramp  con- 
tracted to  the  shape,  or  a  wooden  template  secured  by 
means  of  cramps,  should  be  used. 

Process  2. — The    machine   usually  constructed   for 


Figure  180 

this  purpose  is  shown  at  Fig.  172  and  comprises  an  iron 
framework  with  perforated  cast  top,  a  series  of  gas- 
burners  running  at  intervals  of  9  inches  or  so  the  length 
of  the  machine,  and  over  this  an  iron  plate  covered  by 
a  sheet  of  zinc.  The  gas  having  been  turned  on  and 
the  plate  heated,  the  job  to  be  veneered  is  laid  on  the 
machine,  and  cramps  are  then  placed  across  and  tight- 
ened down  by  means  of  set-screws,  until  the  air  be- 
tween the  foundation  and  the  veneer  is  excluded,  and 


282 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


the  superfluous  glue  squeezed  out.  This  may  be  easily 
ascertained  by  a  tap  on  the  panel,  a  hollow  sound  indi- 
cating that  the  veneer  is  not  bedded.  When  the  veneer 
has  been  laid,  turn  off  the  gas  and  leave  the  job  to  cool 
naturally,  say,  through  the  night,  the  cramps  remaining 


Figure  181 

on.  After  standing  for  three  days,  the  work  may  be 
finished  off.  It  will  be  found  that  some  of  the  glue  has 
oozed  through  the  pores  of  the  veneer,  while  a  general 
roughness  is  apparent.  Proceed  with  an  ordinary  iron 
scraper  or  iron  plane  to  smooth  down  (the  latter  is 
better  if  the  veneer  is  thick  enough,  as  the  scraper  may 
get  too  warm  and  soften  the  glue  beneath),  and  finish 
with  sand-paper  upon  a  cork  rubber.  The  job  is  then 
ready  for  the  polisher. 

When  more  than  one  veneer  is  used  upon  a  panel, 
they  are  jointed  in  the  following  manner : — 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


283 


The  butt-joint  (Fig.  178)  is  a  most  effective  way  of 
veneering  a  drawer-front  or  panel.  Take  two  "match" 
veneers — that  is,  consecutive  members — as  cut  from  the 
log,  cut  through  each  where  it  is  desired  to  butt,  thus 


Figure  182 

making  them  "rights"  and  "lefts,"  the  figure  falling 
equally  from  the  central  joint.  The  veneer  is  then  laid 
upon  the  foundation,  and  a  few  needle  points  or  tacks 
placed  on  each  side  the  joint,  a  strip  of  brown  paper 
being  glued  upon  the  same  to  hold  it  in  position.  When 
dry,  lay  as  before  described. 

Fig.  179. — A  more  elaborate  way  of  panel-veneer- 
ing is  to  use  four  match  veneers  quartered.  All  the 
joints  must  be  pasted. 

Fig.  1 80. — Still  more  elaborate  is  the  addition  of 
cross-banding,  which  is  laid  by  hand  after  the  center 
is  completed. 


284  THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

Fig.  181. — The  addition  of  a  stringing  is  often  ad- 
vantageous to  break  the  line  of  junction  and  throw  up 
the  center,  a  narrow  band  of  the  veneer  being  removed 
for  this  purpose  by  mearis  of  a  cutting  gauge. 

Fig.  182. — If  there  is  a  defect  or  hole  in  a  veneer,  a 
new  piece  should  be  inserted  matching  the  curl  or  mot- 
tle of  the  wood,  the  edges  of  which  should  be  cut  to  the 
shape  of  the  curl  or  follow  the  line  of  the  grain.  If 
this  is  done,  detection  is  almost  impossible ;  on  no  ac- 
count insert  a  square  piece,  as  the  hard  lines  thus  pro- 
duced are  most  objectionable. 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  285 

FRENCH-POLISHING. 

This  most  important  branch  of  the  wood-working 
trade  seldom  gets  the  attention  it  deserves,  the  com- 
mon idea  being  that  there  is  nothing  in  polishing  de- 
manding skill  or  judgment,  or  even  worth  the  trouble 
of  knowing.  No  greater  mistake  than  this  could  be 
made.  Polishers  have  in  their  hands  the  making  or 
marring  of  the  finished  piece  of  furniture  from  the  cab- 
inet-maker's bench.  Briefly,  the  process  of  French- 
polishing  consists  in  the  application  of  various  gums-, 
lacs,  etc.,  dissolved  in  spirit,  in  order  to  give  to  the  wood 
a  surface  or  polish  (bright  or  dull  as  required)  which 
not  only  preserves  the  wood,  but  brings  out  the  beauty 
of  the  grain. 

Workshop  and  Fittings. — The  workshop  should  be 
a  large  well-ventilated  building,  with  a  north  light  for 
preference  and  also  top  lights.  It  should  be  kept  heated 
to  a  given  temperature,  say  60  degrees  F.,  and  be  main- 
tained at  this  heat  night  and  day.  Hot-water  pipes 
around  the  walls,  with  regulating  valves,  will  probably 
give  the  best  results;  steam-pipes  may  be  used,  but  do 
not  maintain  such  an  equable  temperature.  A  small  en- 
closed coke-stove  or  gas-burner  is  an  essential  for  the 
purpose  of  melting  wax,  obtaining  hot  water,  etc. 

The  room  should  be  free  from  dust,  as  any  particles 
floating  in  the  air  and  settling  on  a  job  in  process,  are 
bound  to  be  worked  up  into  it,  producing  a  cloudy  ef- 


286  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

feet.  There  should  also  be  a  smaller  room  leading  from 
the  main  shop  for  "Fumigating ;"  this  must  be  air-tight, 
and  have  a  pane  of  glass  inserted  in  one  of  the  upper 
panels  of  the  door  for  observation  purposes. 

Trestles  are  required  varying  in  height  from  9  inches 
to  30  inches,  and  loose  tops  of  different  lengths  and 
widths  for  placing  on  them.  Several  wooden  battens 
covered  with  felt  to  protect  a  job  are  also'  necessary. 

Materials. — It  need  hardly  be  said  that  upon  the  qual- 
ity of  the  materials  used  in  polishing  depends  very 
largely  the  ultimate  results,  good  or  bad.  And  here,  as 
in  other  branches  of  trade,  the  best  is  always  the  cheap- 
est. It  will  be  found  a  mistake  to  lay  in  too  much  stock, 
as  polish  quickly  evaporates  and  other  materials  deter- 
iorate, but  rather  to  buy  small  quantities  of  lac,  spirit, 
&c.,  and  mix  fresh  as  required. 

Not  much  in  the  way  of  plant  is  needed  to  fit  a  pol- 
ishing shop : — say,  half  a  dozen  pint  (and  a  few  larger) 
stoppered  bottles  for  polish,  glaze,  finish,  varnish,  &c. : 
a  few  jars  of  stain,  oil,  fillers:  and  tin  canisters  for 
keeping  rubbers,  more  valued  by  the  polisher  than  any 
part  of  his  kit. 

How  to  make  a  rubber. — Get  a  piece  of  clean  white 
or  gray  wadding,  remove  the  skin  from  it,  and  roll  it 
into  an  egg  shape,  then  cover  the  same  with  a  thin  linen 
rag  strained  tightly  over  the  wadding,  holding  the  ends 
in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  the  two  forefingers  and  thumb 
bedding  themselves  on  the  extremity  of  the  rubber,  flat- 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  287 

ten  the  under  side  or  polishing  surface,  and  you  will 
have  an  oval  flat  of,  say,  3  by  2  inches.  The  proper  size 
of  the  rubber  depends  upon  the  polisher  himself  and  the 
class  of  work  engaged  on. 

If  new  linen  or  calico  prints  be  used,  they  should  be 
washed  to  remove  all  trace  of  lime  or  dressing,  and  be  as 
soft  and  pliable  as  possible.  A  different  rubber  should 
be  used  for  different  polishes,  and  they  are  so  easy  and 
inexpensive  to  make,  there  is  no  reason  why  work  should 
be  clouded  through  dirty  rubbers.  Cleanliness  and  good 
polishing  go  hand  in  hand.  When  the  rubber  is  finished 
with,  it  should  be  kept  in  an  air-tight  canister.  It  will 
thus  keep  soft,  and  may  be  used  repeatedly.  Failure  to 
do  this  will  result  in  hardness,  which  renders  it  use- 
less. We  are  now  ready  to  commence  work  and  proceed 
to  the  first  page,  viz : — 

Filling-in. — This  consists  of  coating  the  surface  of 
the  wood  with  a  filler,  which  closes  or  fills  up  the  grain, 
thus  making  it  possible  to  get  a  perfectly  smooth  surface 
for  polishing  and  also  saving  time  and  material  in  the 
after-work.  Upon  the  efficiency  of  the  filling-in  depends 
the  result  of  the  finished  job.  There  are  many  good  fill- 
ers on  the  market,  any  one  of  which  might  be  equally 
well  adopted,  but  it  is  much  better  that  the  polisher 
should  make  his  own  polishes,  &c.,  and  many  men  pre- 
fer to  do  so.  Consequently  no  two  polishers  use  exactly 
the  same  formula,  but  work  upon  receipts  best  adapted 
to  their  own  particular  style.  Before  filling-in,  the  work 


288  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

should  be  as  finely  papered  down  as  possible.  Too  much 
stress  cannot  be  laid  on  this  point,  for  if  well  done  at 
first  much  after-labor  will  be  saved.  The  filler  can  then 
be  put  on  with  a  flannel,  and  rubbed  into  the  grain  of 
the  wood  until  the  pores  are  filled  up,  then  wipe  all  off 
and  paper  down.  This  will  be  found  necessary,  because 
the  filler  will  have  raised  the  grain.  When  dry,  the 
work  will  be  ready  for  the  next  process,  bodying-up. 

The  following  fillers  will  be  found  useful.  The  exact 
proportions  can  be  ascertained  when  mixing,  remember- 
ing that  the  filler  must  just  be  of  the  consistency  to  work 
freely. 

Fillers. —  (i)  Spirit  varnish  laid  on  with  a  brush; 
this  forms  a  good  quick  filler.  Two  coats  should  be 
given. 

(2)  Size. — Ordinary  glue  size  may  be  used  as  a  filler 
in  the  case  of  hard-grained  wood,  and  will  answer  the 
purpose. 

(3)  Whiting  and  Russian  Tallow. — Mix  to  a  paste 
and  apply  as  before. 

(4)  Whiting  and  Linseed-oil. — Mix  these  together 
into  a  paste  and  apply  with  a  flannel.     This  is  a  filler 
generally  adopted. 

The  disadvantage  in  Nos.  3  and  4  is  that  there  is  a 
great  liability  to  get  the  job  greasy,  which  will  after- 
wards work  its  way  through  the  polish,  giving  the  sur- 
face a  cobweb  effect  which  is  known  as  "sweating." 

(5)  Plaster  of  Paris  and  Water. — Mix  as  required, 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  289 

and  apply  to  the  job,  and  rub  off  as  quickly  as  possible. 
This  filler  is  undoubtedly  the  cleanest  and  most  effectual 
that  can  be  used,  and  entirely  obviates  "sweating." 

( 6)  Whiting  and  Turpentine. — Mix  into1P|foste,  and 
apply  as  before.  This  is  preferred  by  many  to  No.  5. 

Thus  far  these  fillers  are  in  the  white,  and  suitable 
only  for  such  woods  as  ash,  maple,  satinwood,  birch, 
&c.  In  the  case  of  dark-colored  woods  the  filler  should 
be  tinted  with  rose-pink  or  Venetian  red ;  ebonized  work, 
lamp-black;  oak,  walnut  woods,  &c.,  chromes,  ochres, 
and  umbers  according  to  the  tone  required. 

Bodying-up. — \Ye  now  come  to  the  second  stage  of 
polishing.  The  wood  having  been  papered  down  with 
fine  old  glass  paper,  take  a  rubber,  previously  described, 
and  sprinkle  a  little  polish  onto  it  from  the  stock  bottle ; 
then  cover  over  with  a  rag,  holding  the  ends  tightly  in 
the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  tap  the  rubber  against  the 
palm  of  the  other  hand,  which  will  cause  the  polish  to 
distribute  itself  over  the  whole  rubber;  put  a  spot  of  lin- 
seed-oil on  with  the  finger,  and  the  rubber  is  ready  for 
work.  Commence  very  lightly  at  one  corner  of  the 
work,  if  it  be  a  panel  or  carcase  end,  and  by  a  series  of 
motions  forming  interlacing  curves,  gradually  work 
over  the  entire  surface,  never  lifting  the  rubber  until 
at  the  edge  of  the  job.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  have 
the  rubber  too  full  of  polish,  or  to  press  on  the  work 
too  hard,  in  which  case  the  polish  will  ooze  out  of  the 
rubber  and  leave  nasty  ridges  on  the  job ;  the  idea  is  how 


290  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

best  to  cover  the  entire  work  evenly.  Having  done  this, 
let  the  job  stand  as  long  as  possible — a  few  days  will  do 
no  harm, — the  shellac  will  then  have  sunk  into  the  wood, 
the  spirit  evaporating.  This  will  present  a  dull  appear- 
ance, and  feel  rough  to  the  touch.  We  then  proceed  to 
paper  down  again,  in  fact  too  much  stress  cannot  be 
placed  upon  the  value  of  judicious  sand-papering. 
After  this  the  operation  is  repeated  until  a  good  body 
of  polish  is  obtained  on  the  work.  Be  very  sparing  of 
using  oil;  though  this  eases  the  rubber,  it  ruins  the  job 
ultimately.  After  another  papering  or  pumice-stoning 
down  we  can  pass  to  the  final  stage,  spiriting-off.  It 
may  be  asked,  how  many  times  is  it  necessary  to  go 
over  the  work  ?  This  very  much  depends  on  the  wood 
worked  upon.  It  will  be  anything  from  three  to  six 
times,  the  object  being  to  obtain  a  body,  hard  and  that 
will  not  sink.  Much  of  the  modern  work  is  completely 
ruined  to-day  because  it  is  "rushed."  Time  is  not  al- 
lowed between  the  rubbers,  consequently  no  proper 
foundation  is  obtained,  and  in  six  months'  time  the  job 
requires  redoing.  The  method  described  above  will 
apply  equally  to  either  light  or  dark  woods,  the  differ- 
ence being  in  the  polish  used  rather  than  the  method. 
Spiriting-off. — This  process  may  be  called  the  most 
difficult  portion  of  French-polishing,  and  when  once 
proficient  in  this  a  man  may  be  said  to  know  his  trade. 
The  process  is  similar  to  bodying-up,  with  this  excep- 
tion, that  towards  the  last  "spirits"  only  are  used  on 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  291 

the  rubber.  This  has  the  effect  of  polishing  the  "lac" 
put  on  during  bodying-up,  and  giving  to  the  work  a 
fine,  hard,  bright  surface;  the  oil  previously  worked  in 
is  spirited  out. 

Commence  by  using,  say,  two  parts  of  polish  to  one 
of  spirit,  then  equal  parts,  afterwards  two  of  spirit  to 
one  of  polish,  and  thus  gradually  reducing  the  polish 
to  nil,  and  using  only  pure  spirit.  The  rubber  and 
motions  are  as  previously  described.  A  clean  rubber 
should  be  used  when  pure  spirit  only  is  used,  and  a 
series  of  straight  motions  taken  instead  of  the  circular 
ones,  running-  the  same  direction  as  the  grain  of  the 
wood. 

Small  mouldings,  angles,  awkward  corners,  &c., 
which  would  be  very  difficult  to  spirit  off  in  the  ordi- 
nary way,  may  be  done  by  "glazing."  Applied  with  a 
rubber  and  worked  straight  along  the  moulds,  this 
glaze  quickly  dries,  and  has  the  same  appearance  as  if 
spirited-off.  It  is,  however,  softer,  and  will  not  stand 
wear.  Much  of  this  work  could  be  obviated  if  the  pol- 
isher were  given  the  job  in  pieces;  for  instance,  mould- 
ings mitred  around  panels  should  be  polished  in  long 
lengths,  and  cut  and  fitted  afterwards,  thus  avoiding 
nasty  corners.  Turned  work  is  better  polished  in  the 
lathe,  before  being  framed  up.  Panels  should  be  pol- 
ished before  framing  up,  or  if  beaded  in,  left  loose  for 
that  purpose. 

Receipts  for  French  Polish. — There  is  absolutely  no 


292  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

difficulty  in  mixing  polishes,  and  every  man  should  be 
able  to  do  so,  the  process  simply  consisting  in  dissolv- 
ing shellac  in  methylated  spirit.  This  latter  should  be 
bought  at  60  over-proof,  stored  in  a  cool  place,  and 
tightly  sealed,  as  it  soon  evaporates. 

Shellac  is  orange  in  color;  the  lighter  the  color  the 
purer  the  quality.  It  is  in  small  flakes,  and  requires 
crushing  before  dissolving  in  the  spirits.  This  would 
be  used  for  ordinary  polish.  If,  however,  a  clear  or 
white  polish  is  desired,  then  bleached  shellac  is  used. 
This  is  in  lumps,  and  must  be  crushed  before  using. 
This  lac  must  be  kept  in  water.  Coloring  pigments  can 
be  added  to  any  polish  to  intensify  it  as  desired,  such 
as  Bismarck  or  Vandyke  brown.  These  polishes  should 
be  mixed  cold — the  shellac  will  take  a  little  longer  to 
dissolve,  but  the  operation  is  much  safer, — then  strain 
through  muslin,  and  put  in  stoppered  bottles. 

Brown  Polish. —  (i)  I  pint  methylated  spirit,  4  oz. 
orange  shellac,  y*  oz.  sandarac;  or  (3)  i  pint  methy- 
lated spirit,  4  oz.  orange  shellac,  YZ  oz.  sandarac,  Y± 
oz.  benzoin. 

White  Polish. — i  pint  methylated  spirit,  3  oz. 
bleached  shellac,  i  oz.  gum  benzoin. 

Black  Polish. — Either  Nos.  i,  2,  or  3,  adding  drop- 
black  or  an  aniline  dye. 

Glaze. — i  pint  methylated  spirits,  6  oz.  benzoin,  ]/2 
oz.  of  sandarac  can  be  added  for  harding  purposes. 

Furniture  Revivers. — Under  this  head  come  those 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  293 

preparations  which  are  used  to  restore  furniture  which 
has  already  been  polished,  but  has  through  neglect  or 
other  cause  become  cloudy.  The  first  thing  to  be  done 
in  a  case  of  this  kind  is  to  thoroughly  wash  the  wood- 
work with  a  flannel  soaped  with  curd  soap  and  warm 
water;  by  this  means  all  dirt  and  grease  will  be  re- 
moved. After  wiping  down  with  a  soft  dry  duster, 
apply  one  or  other  of  the  following  revivers,  and  pol- 
ish off  with  another  clean  duster.  Much  of  the  old  pol- 
ish will  thus  be  brought  back. 

Reviver  No.  I. — Take  equal  parts  of  methylated 
spirit,  linseed-oil,  and  malt  vinegar.  Mix  well  and 
shake  before  using. 

Reviver  No.  2. — Turpentine,  I  quart;  bees'-wax,  24 
Ib. ;  curd  soap,  2  oz. ;  water,  i  quart.  Dissolve  the  bees'- 
wax  in  the  turpentine  by  moderate  heat;  shred  the  curd, 
soap  in  the  water  and  boil ;  then  while  both  are  hot  mix 
together.  This  will  set  in  a  light  paste,  and  prove  an 
excellent  polisher. 

Repairs. — When  a  bruise  has  to  be  made  good  upon 
a  job  the  best  plan  to  adopt  is  as  follows : — Raise  the 
bruise  by  means  of  a  hot  iron  placed  upon  a  damp 
cloth.  This,  unless  the  wood  is  broken,  will  lift  it  to 
its  original  level,  it  may  then  be  sand-papered  off  and 
polished. 

Bleaching. — It  sometimes  happens  that  some  parts 
of  the  wood  are  darker  than  the  rest,  in  which  event  it 
iis  most  important  that  the  darker  parts  be  reduced  to 


294  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

the  lighter.  This  result  is  produced  by  bleaching.  Dis- 
solve i  oz.  of  oxalic  acid  in  half  a  pint  of  water,  and 
apply  with  a  rag;  when  dry,  paper  down,  and  if  the 
density  is  not  sufficiently  reduced,  repeat  the  operation 
until  the  desired  result  is  obtained. 

Sweating-out. — When  too  much  oil  has  been  used  on 
the  job,  the  surface  presents  a  cobweb  appearance  which 
gradually  increases  and  eats  the  polish  away.  When 
first  detected,  it  may  be  removed  with  warm  water,  soap, 
and  flannel ;  but  when  of  long  standing,  nothing  can 
be  done  to  remove  it  except  repolishing. 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  295 

3.     FUMIGATING. 

This  is  the  process  of  treating  oak  with  ammonia, 
darkening  it  by  this  means  to  any  required  shade.  This 
result  can  be  achieved  in  two  ways. 

(ist.)  Natural  fumigation,  that  is,  exposing  the 
oak  work  in  a  sealed  chamber  to  the  fumes  of  am- 
monia until  the  required  density  is  obtained. 

(2nd.)  By  applying  liquid  ammonia  to  the  job  it- 
self. 

The  ammonia  used  should  be  a  solution  of  ammonia 
gas  in  water,  and  should  have  a  specific  gravity  of  880. 
This  must,  on  account  of  its  volatile  nature,  be  kept  in 
a  well-stoppered  bottle. 

Process  I. — To  fumigate  by  this  means  a  separate 
chamber  is  required.  This  may  be  an  ordinary  room 
or  a  fuming-cabinet  built  in  the  corner  of  the  polishing 
shop.  In  either  case  it  must  be  air-tight,  and  the  door 
opening  into  it  should  have  a  square  of  glass  for  ob- 
servation purposes.  When  the  oak  work  has  been 
placed  within  it,  take,  say  I  pint  of  ammonia  and  fill 
about  a  dozen  saucers  placed  upon  the  floor.  The  door 
must  then  be  closed,  and  sealed  up  by  means  of  brown 
paper  pasted  round  the  joints.  The  process  of  fuming 
then  begins,  and  can  be  watched  through  the  glass  until 
the  desired  shade  is  obtained.  The  smaller  the  cham- 
ber the  quicker  will  the  work  be  done;  the  time  may 
vary  from  six  to  twelve  hours  according  to  the  strength 


296  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

of  the  ammoniated  atmosphere.  Practice  alone  will 
determine  the  time  for  opening  the  chamber.  This  is 
the  only  reliable  and  safe  way  of  fumigating;  in  fact  all 
other  processes  are  but  imitations  of  it,  and  the  product 
of  "cheapness  and  rush." 

The  advantages  of  this  process  are :  ( i )  that  as  no 
liquid  touches  the  job  the  grain  is  not  raised,  conse- 
quently sand-papering  is  avoided;  (2)  the  ammonia 
fumes  penetrate  deeper  into  the  wood  than  by  outward 
application;  (3)  the  exact  density  can  be  more  easily 
determined. 

The  disadvantages  are :  ( I )  This  process  requires  a 
separate  room  for  the  purpose ;  ( 2  )  It  takes  much  more 
time  than  is  required  by  the  direct  application  of  am- 
monia. 

In  connection  with  natural  fuming  it  will  be  no- 
ticed that  some  parts  of  the  job  may  not  "take"  at  all. 
This  often  arises  from  the  fact  that  various  oaks  have 
been  used  in  its  construction.  Thus  "Oak  grown  in 
one  part  of  America  may  be  susceptible  to  the  fumes, 
while  oak  grown  in  another  state,  will  not."  Those 
parts  which  have  not  "taken"  must  then  be  treated  by 
Process  2,  and  care  must  be  exercised  that  the  resultant 
color  may  be  the  same.  Let  the  ammonia  for  this  pur- 
pose be  very  weak.  Let  it  dry  before  applying  another 
coat  (if  necessary),  as  it  is  much  easier  to  intensify 
than  to  bleach,  and  nothing  looks  worse  than  a  patchy 
job. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  297 

Process  2.. — This  consists  in  the  application  of  liquid 
ammonia  (.880  spec,  grav.)  direct  on  to  the  work.  It 
is  usually  applied  with  a  sponge  or  rag.  Water  may 
be  added  to  weaken  the  solution  if  only  a  light  tint  is 
desired.  The  wood  immediately  darkens  upon  the  sur- 
face, but  allowances  should  be  made  for  its  drying 
lighter.  The  objection  to  this  process  is  that  it  raises 
the  grain,  which  entails  sand-papering  down,  while 
process  No.  I  does  not.  This  necessarily  takes  away 
much  of  the  sharpness  of  the  mouldings,  the  fillets  suf- 
fering most  of  all.  In  this  case  it  will  be  found  that 
the  work  does  not  take  the  dye  evenly,  and  the  same 
shading  or  toning  to  a  color  will  be  found  necessary 
to  produce  a  good  result. 

In  either  process  the  job  should  be  in  the  white,  that 
is,  without  brass  or  copper  work  or  silvered  plates,  as 
these  are  liable  to  be  affected  by  the  ammonia  fumes. 

Finishing. — The  work,  having  been  fumed  by  either 
of  the  foregoing  processes,  is  now  ready  for  finishing, 
and  the  usual  way  is  either  of  the  following: — (i) 
Egg-shell  finish;  (2)  Wax  finish. 

( i )  Apply  a  thin  rubber  of  ordinary  polish  to  the 
job,  and  dull  down  with  powdered  pumice-stone  and  a 
stiff  brush.  This  will  give  a  dull  shine  without  in  any 
way  filling  the  grain  of  the  wood.  (2)  Dissolve  pure 
bees'-wax  in  turpentine,  and  apply  with  a  rag,  rubbing 
well  in,  and  obtaining  a  polish  by  "elbow  grease." 
This  is  a  more  tedious  process  than  the  former,  but  much 


298  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

more  satisfactory,  as  this  process  can  be  carried  on  after 
the  job  has  left  the  polisher's  hands  and  the  polish  will 
constantly  improve. 

Mahogany  is  the  only  other  wood  that  will  "fume." 
It  assumes  a  purple  tint,  and  should  be  treated  in  the 
same  manner  as  oak. 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  299 

4.     WAX-POLISHING. 

This  method  of  producing  a  polish  was  undoubtedly 
the  earliest  adopted  by  cabinetmakers,  and  is  best  suited 
to  the  finishing  of  dark  oak,  chestnut,  and  some  other 
woods.  The  advantage  appears  to  consist  in  the  fact 
that  the  process  is  never  complete,  and,  like  Tennyson's 
"Brook,"  may  go  on  forever.  Much  of  the  beauty  of  a 
piece  of  sixteenth-century  carved  oak  is  due  to  the  pol- 
ishing,— the  result  of  years  of  rubbing — by  use. 

In  wax-polishing  two  ingredients  only  are  necessary, 
bees'- wax  and  turpentine.  The  wax  should  be  melted, 
and  sufficient  turpentine  added  to  form  an  easy  work- 
able paste ;  do  not  heat  the  turpentine  or  pour  it  into  the 
melted  wax  while  the  latter  is  still  on  the  fire,  as  it  is 
highly  inflammable.  As  all  the  turpentine  must  evap- 
orate before  the  polishing  is  complete — leaving  the  wax 
to  act  as  both  filler  and  polisher, — no  more  should  be 
added  at  the  commencement  than  necessary,  otherwise 
the  work  will  be  prolonged.  If  the  stock  sets  hard  it 
can  be  softened  again  by  warming,  but  it  is  better  to 
mix  it  in  small  quantities  as  required.  The  safest 
method  of  warming  or  melting  all  ingredients  in  the 
polish-shop  is  by  steam,  using  a  kettle  or  double  pan, 
such  as  the  cabinet-makers  use  for  glue.  This  point  is 
one  not  lost  sight  of  by  insurance  companies. 

In  applying  the  wax-polish  no  skill  is  required,  but 
"elbow-grease"  and  patience  are  absolutely  necessary. 


300  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

We  will  suppose  that  we  are  polishing  an  oak  wain- 
scoting, which  has  been  previously  fumed  and  stained. 
If  the  latter,  we  shall  rub  down  with  sand-paper;  if 
the  former,  this  will  be  unnecessary.  By  means  of  a 
flannel  boss  we  apply  the  wax-polish,  rubbing  the  pan- 
els in  circular  motion  till  every  part  receives  an  equal 
polish.  The  work  may  now  with  advantage  be  laid 
aside  until  the  next  day,  when  the  process  may  be  re- 
peated. Let  "a  little  and  often"  be  the  motto, — a  little, 
in  order  that  no  clogging  of  wax  occurs  in  the  corners 
and  mouldings,  all  the  wax  being  rubbed  in  until  an 
even  bright  surface  is  obtained,  free  from  all  tackiness 
or  finger  marking;  and  often,  so  that  each  thin  coat  may 
have  a  chance  to  sink  into  the  grain  and  by  the  evapora- 
tion of  the  turpentine  harden.  Remember  that  the  pol- 
ish is  produced  not  by  the  amount  of  wax  used  but  by 
"elbow-grease." 

If  preferred,  a  piece  of  felt  glued -to  a  wooden  block 
may  be  used ;  a  stiff  flat  bristle  brush  is  often  used  for 
polishing  a  carved  panel  or  turned  work. 

Thus  far  we  have  spoken  of  wax-polishing  as  ap- 
plied to  oak,  and  it  is  questionable  whether  it  can  be 
applied  with  equal  success  to  other  woods;  stained  ash 
is  perhaps  the  next  best  wood  to  oak  for  this  method 
of  polishing. 

Floors  are  often  treated  in  this  way,  including  par- 
quet surrounds,  plain  stained  surrounds,  or  entire 
floors.  Hard-wood  floors  are  usually  without  previous 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  301 

staining,  as  each  polishing  darkens  the  floor  until  a  rich 
tone  results.  The  method  is  as  previously  described, 
except  that  for  floors  a  box-polisher  is  used,  which  is 
weighted.  This  is  a  wooden  case  (say)  12x8x6 
inches,  weighted  inside  with  iron  or  lead  to  14  Ibs, ; 
attached  to  this  is  a  handle  6  feet  long,  working  on  a 
swivel,  and  thus  allowing  a  sweep  of  6  feet  or  so  in 
each  direction,  in  other  words  a  clear  swing  of  12  feet 
or  more.  Upon  the  bottom  of  this  case  tack  a  piece  of 
clean  felt  and  proceed  to  polish. 

The  wax  must  previously  have  been  rubbed  on  the 
floor  with  a  flannel,  and  the  first  part  of  the  polishing 
done  with  a  weighted  brush  having  a  surface  of  12x8 
inches,  and  fitted  with  a  swinging  handle.  This  will 
evenly  spread  the  wax  and  take  up  all  superfluous  quan- 
tities; it  will  also  produce  a  certain  amount  of  polish 
which  can  afterwards  be  brought  up  to  a  great  bril- 
liancy by  the  finishing  felt  polisher.  This  method 
would  also  be  used  in  preparing  the  floor  of  a  ball- 
room, which  might  afterwards  be  kept  in  condition  by 
the  sprinkling  and  rubbing-in  of  French  chalk. 


302  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


5.    OIL-POLISHING. 

If  wax  polishing  was  the  original  method  of  treating 
oak,  it  may  be  said  with  equal  truth  that  oil-polishing 
was  the  method  of  finishing  mahogany  in  the  days 
when  French-polishing  was  unknown;  in  fact,  it  is 
questionable  whether  any  of  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
teenth-century work  was  dealt  with  in  any  other  man- 
ner. Chippendale,  Sheraton,  and  their  contemporaries 
certainly  adopted  it  as  best  suited  to  their  work,  and 
the  untouched  jobs  handed  down  prove  their  decision 
to  have  been  right. 

The  great  objection  to  oil-polishing  is  the  length  of 
time  required  to  produce  a  good  result;  in  fact,  the 
longer  you  go  on,  the  better  it  is.  This  fact  has  in 
these  days  of  speed  completely  put  oil-polishing  in  the 
background;  the  manufacturer  wants  a  speedy  return 
for  his  capital,  and  the  public  require  their  furniture  the 
day  after  they  give  the  order,  so  that  it  is  impossible 
to  have  a  job  in  the  polisher's  hands  a  month,  and 
speedier  methods  have  consequently  been  adopted. 

It  is  unquestionable  that  oil-polishing  will  bring  up 
the  figure  of  mahogany  and  enrich  its  color  better  than 
any  other  method,  and  if  time  permits,  it  is,  for  large 
work  (such  as  panelling,  dadoes,  doors,  screens,  coun- 
ter tops,  &c.),  the  very  best  way  of  polishing. 

The  application  consists  in  simply  producing  a  polish 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  303 

upon  the  wood  with  raw  linseed-oil,  this  being  continu- 
ally rubbed  in  with  a  flannel  or  felt  pad.  Let  the  opera- 
tion be  repeated  day  by  day  until  a  polish  results.  The 
process  is,  like  wax-polishing,  extremely  tedious  and 
laborious.  Oil-polish  can  always  be  revived  years  af- 
terwards by  the  same  process,  and  a  little  judicious  rub- 
bing will  keep  the  work  constantly  up  to  the  mark. 


304  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

6.     STAIXIXG  AND  VARNISHING. 

The  rage  for  effect  at  low  cost  has  necessitated  the 
staining  of  white  woods  to  imitate  the  more  expensive 
ones,  and  the  bulk  of  the  so-called  walnut  or  dark  ma- 
hogany fittings  are  but  the  product  of  the  polisher  who, 
with  dexterous  hand,  produces  the  required  deception. 
The  woods  commonly  used  for  stained  work  are  birch, 
canary  wood,  yellow  pine,  and  other  woods. 

Stains  should  be  placed  on  the  wood  direct  before 
any  size  or  filling  has  been  applied.  They  may  be  ap- 
plied in  warm  or  cold  water,  diluted  to  their  proper 
strength.  A  sponge  is  the  best  medium,  and  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  stain  floods  the  wood  equally. 
When  dry,  the  work  should  be  sand-papered  carefully 
— as  the  wet  stain  raises  the  grain — and  a  smooth  sur- 
face obtained,  then  proceed  with  the  finishing  off  as 
previously  described.  Aniline  dyes  are  much  used,  and 
can  be  obtained  in  any  shade  in  addition  to  the  follow- 
ing. Let  the  stain  be  weak;  it  is  easier  to  apply  a  sec- 
ond coat  than  lighten  the  first. 

Walnut. — (i)  Vandyke  brown,  y2  Ib. ;  ammonia 
.880,  i  pint;  water,  i  quart;  (2)  bichromate  of  potash, 
4  oz. ;  water,  i  quart. 

Mahogany. — (i)  Bismarck  brown,  2  oz. ;  water,  i 
quart;  (2)  logwood,  ^  Ib. ;  water,  i  quart. 

Black. — Logwood,  ^  Ib. ;  sulphate  of  iron,  j£  H>- ) 
water,  i  quart. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  305 

Green. — Sulphate  of  copper,  2  oz. ;  chrome  yellow, 
4  oz. ;  water,  i  quart. 

Apply  the  stain  to  the  wood  with  a  sponge  or  rag, 
rubbing  over  the  work  until  an  even  surface  is  ob- 
tained. Allow  the  stain  to  dry  (which  will  raise  the 
grain)  then  paper  down,  and  proceed  to  finish  by  var- 
nishing. This  may  be  done  in  either  oil  or  spirit,  but 
the  process  is  the  same,  except  that  for  oil  varnish  a 
bristle  brush  may  be  used,  while  for  spirit  a  camel- 
hair  brush  is  desirable.  After  the  first  coat  by  either 
method,  the  work  should  be  rubbed  down  before  a  sec- 
ond or  finishing  coat  is  applied.  If  an  extra  fine  sur- 
face is  required,  paper  down  again  after  the  second 
coat,  and  apply  a  third.  Oil  varnish  would  be  used  for 
such  work  as  would  be  exposed  to  the  weather,  spirit 
varnish  for  indoor  or  protected  woodwork. 

The  following  are  a  few  receipts  for  varnishes : — 

Oak  Varnish. — 3  oz.  resin,  I  pint  turps,  and  4  oz. 
sandarac. 

Copal  Varnish. — 2  Ib.  Sierra  Leone  copal,  i  Ib.  lin- 
seed-oil, and  3^  pints  turpentine. 

Spirit  Varnish. — i  Ib.  orange  shellac,  6  oz.  sandarac, 
2  oz.  hard  resin,  and  2  quarts  meth.  spirit. 

Clear  Spirit  Varnish. — 8  oz.  sandarac,  i  quart  meth. 
spirit,  y§  pint  of  turpentine;  this  should  stand  and  be 
strained  through  muslin  to  take  out  all  sediment. 

Spirit  Varnish.—^  Ib.  orange  shellac,  i  oz.  resin,  i 
oz.  sandarac,  and  i  pint  meth.  spirit ;  this  makes  a  hard, 
quick-setting  varnish. 


306  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


HOW  TO  MAKE  REVOVLING  BOOK-CASES. 

In  No.  i,  Fig.  183,  is  an  illustration  of  a  completed 
revolving  book-case  of  the  ordinary  type.  It  stands  3 
or  4  feet  high,  and  is  about  20  inches  square.  A  plan 
of  the  base  on  which  the  book-case  revolves  is  shown  on 
No.  2.  This  is  made  of  two  pieces  of  wood  2^  inches 
wide  and  il/2  inches  thick.  These  are  joined  together 
by  halving,  and  have  rounded  ends.  Four  castors  are 
fixed  at  the  base,  one  near  each  corner.  The  top  is  made 
of  il/2  inch  boards  doweled  together,  and  the  edge 
moulded  and  a  rebate  cut  on  the  under  side.  The  top 
may  also  be  made  of  a  ^-inch  board  with  a  I  ^ 
moulding  fitted  round  the  edge,  and  another 
board  fastened  below,  thus  saving  material  and  effecting 
lightness.  No.  3  is  a  section  of  the  book-case  showing 
the  details  of  construction  of  the  top  and  bottom  and 
the  method  of  attaching  the  revolving  part  to  the  base, 
A  being  the  top,  B  F-  and  B  F  two  of  the  laths  which 
keep  the  books  in  position,  and  H  the  fixed  base  (shown 
in  No.  2).  The  base  of  the  revolving  part  is  made  of 
i  Y-2.  -inch  boards,  C,  which  have  a  rebate  cut  round  the 
lower  edge  to  receive  the  i-inch  plinth,  D  D,  which  is 
mitred  at  the  corners  and  fastened  into  the  rebate.  The 
lower  edge  of  the  plinth  is  rebated  and  a  thin  board,  E, 
fixed  into  it. 

No.  4  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  frame  to  which  the 
shelves  are  fastened.    It  is  made  of  four  boards  of  equal 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


307 


width  and  thickness  joined  by  grooves  and  overlapping 
so  that  a  square  tube  is  formed.  These  boards  must  be 
of  such  a  width  that,  when  fastened  in  their  places,  the 


Figure  183 

width  of  the  frame  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  base,  C 
(No.  3).  The  middle  part  of  the  frame  should  be  i]/2 
inch  longer  than  the  rest,  and  fit  into  the  center  of  C. 
Another  way  of  fastening  the  shelves,  which  requires 
less  material,  is  to  make  a  square  tube,  and  attach  the 
shelves  to  this.  Strips  of  wood  2  or  3  inches  wide  are 
fastened  along  the  top  and  bottom  of  each  shelf  in  the 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


position  in  which  the  boards  (No.  4)  would  come. 
These  strips  keep  the  books  in  position  at  one  end  of 
each  row,  and  the  laths  (B  F  and  B  F,  No.  3)  at  the 
other  end. 


The  method  of  pivoting  the  revolving"  part  is  shown 
in  No.  3.  A  circular  pillar,  I,  is  turned  to  fit  the  in- 
terior of  the  square  tube,  and  the  lower  end  is  turned 
down  to  form  a  pivot  which  fits  the  hole  in  the  fixed 
base,  H ;  a  little  above  the  pivot  a  groove  is  cut  in  the 
pillar,  forming  a  neck  which  works  in  a  hole  cut  in  a 
piece  of  i-inch  board,  G,  which  is  attached  to  the 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


309 


under  side  of  C.  This  piece  of  wood  is  sawn  in  half, 
the  two  halves  placed  in  position  on  the  pillar,  and 
then  glued  together  again.  The  pillar  extends  to  within 
about  i  foot  of  the  top  of  the  tube.  A  steel  spindle,  K, 
with  a  pointed  top  is  screwed  into  the  upper  end,  and 


Fig.  183 

this  spindle  pivots  in  the  under  side  of  a  metal  plate, 
L,  which  is  attached  to  a  block  of  wood,  M.  The 
latter  should  exactly  fit  the  tube,  and  is  attached  to  it 
by  screws. 

The  revolving  apparatus  can  also  be  made  by  fasten- 
ing two  or  more  castors  or  wheels  to  the  lower  side  of 
the  base.  These  castors  roll  over  a  metal  plate  fastened 
to  the  upper  side  of  the  fixed  base.  The  latter  is  at- 
tached to  the  revolving  part  by  a  spindle,  which  passes 
through  the  frame  and  the  base,  and  is  secured  by  nuts. 

When  the  top  and  bottom  has  been  attached  to  the 
tube,  and  the  shelves  are  in  their  places,  the  laths  B  F 
and  B  F  (No.  3)  are  attached  to  the  shelves,  and  also 


310 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


to  the  rebates  at  the  top  and  bottom,  by  brass-headed 
nails  or  screws. 

Revolving  book-cases  may  be  circular  or  hexagonal 
instead  of  square,  the  principles  of  construction  being 


Figure  183 

essentially  the  same.  Sometimes  the  revolving  part  is 
made  shorter,  and  legs  added  to  the  fixed  base.  They 
are  also  made  to  contain  only  one  tier  of  books,  so  that 
they  can  stand  on  the  table.  Fixed  book-stands  are 
also  made  with  shelves  arranged  similarly  to  the  re- 
volving book-cases. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  311 

SOME  MISSION  AND  CRAFTS  EXAMPLES. 

Chairs. — Although  chairs  have  an  infinite  variety  of 
form,  as  we  have  shown,  they  are  constructed  on  nearly 
the  same  principles.  No.  i,  Fig.  184,  is  an  illustration 
of  the  framework  of  a  chair  suitable  for  a  sitting-room. 
The  hind  part  consists  of  two  long  pieces  of  squared 
stuff,  to  which  are  mortised  two  horizontal  upper  rails 
forming  the  back,  a  third  at  the  level  of  the  seat,  and  a 
fourth  below.  These  back  legs  are  usually  curved 
backwards  above  and  below  the  seat,  so  that  the  chair- 
back  has  a  slight  slope  and  so  that  the  feet  are  spread 
out  sufficiently  to  prevent  tilting.  The  front  legs  are 
joined  by  two  rails,  and  are  also  fastened  to  the  back 
by  the  same  number.  The  tenons  of  the  upper  rails 
may  come  up  flush  with  the  top  of  the  leg,  as  shown 
in  the  illustration,  or  can  be  fitted  into  an  ordinary 
mortise.  The  width  of  the  rails  at  the  level  of  the  seat 
depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  upholstery;  if  springs 
are  to  be  fitted,  they  are  about  three  inches  wide.  The 
bottom  rails  are  omitted  in  some  chairs  of  heavy  build, 
or  the  side  pairs  of  legs  are  connected  by  rails  and  the 
middle  of  these  joined  by  a  cross-piece. 

All  the  parts  of  bedroom  chairs,  with  the  exception 
of  the  backs,  are,  as  a  rule,  turned.  The  two  back 
legs  project  above  the  seat  to  form  the  back,  and  are 
joined  by  two  horizontal  bars,  which  are  slightly  curved 
and  joined  to  the  vertical  pieces  by  shallow  mortises  cut 


312 


THE    PRACTICAL    CALIXET    MAKER 


in  the  latter.  The  joint  is  further  strengthened  by  screws 
passed    from   the    front    through   counter-sunk   holes, 


Figure  184 

the  heads  being  afterwards  covered  by  small  turned 
beads  glued  in,  or  if  the  chair  is  to  be  painted,  the  holes 
can  be  filled  with  wooden  plugs.  The  lower  rails  are 
turned,  and  their  rounded  ends  fit  into  corresponding 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


313 


holes  bored  in  the  legs,  where  they  are  secured  by  glue. 
Sometimes  only  the  front  legs  are  turned,  the  back  legs 


Figure  184a 

being  left   square  and  bent   slightly  outwards.      The 
seats  of  such  chairs  are  made  of  four  flat  pieces  of  wood 


314  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

about  I  inch  thick  mortised  together,  the  front  and 
back  pieces  overlapping  the  other  two,  and  the  back 
piece  being  shorter  than  that  at  the  front.  The  corners 
and  edges  are  slightly  rounded,  and  sometimes  the 
front  piece  is  curved,  as  are  also  the  sides.  The  front 
legs  fit  into  the  holes  bored  in  the  under  side  of  the 
seat,  and  the  back  legs  are  fitted  to  the  seat  by  grooves 
^2  inch  deep  cut  in  the  former.  Rounded  backs  are 
made  by  cutting  the  upper  ends  of  the  back  legs  to  form 
part  of  a  circle,  and  fitting  across  these  a  curved  piece 
of  wood.  This  is  attached  by  mortise-and-tenon  joints, 
or  by  dowels.  The  lower  cross-bar  is  cut  in  a  similar 
manner,  so  that,  when  the  four  are  joined  together, 
the  back  has  the  form  of  a  segment  of  a  circle  or  ellipse. 

Drawing-room  chairs  are  framed  in  a  somewhat 
similar  manner.  Turned  or  fretted  bars  are  sometimes 
inserted  in  the  back,  either  horizontally  or  vertically, 
or  part  of  the  back  is  upholstered.  The  legs  are 
squared,  tapered,  and  slightly  curved;  or  they  are  also 
turned  and  fluted,  or  left  plain  and  carved. 

No.  2,  Fig.  184,  shows  the  frame  work  of  an  arm- 
chair. The  only  difference  between  this  and  No.  I 
is  that  the  back  is  higher,  the  seat  larger,  and  four 
extra  rails  forming  the  arms  are  added.  The  latter 
may  be  upholstered,  or  not,  according  to  the  design  of 
the  chair;  turned  spindles  are  sometimes  inserted  be- 
tween them  and  the  seat.  The  back  of  the  arm-chair 
is  sometimes  slightly  curved,  and  the  seat  may  be  made 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


315 


of  a  large  piece  of  stamped  leather  nailed  across,  with- 
out springs  or  other  upholstery. 

Dining-room  chairs  are  now  largely  made  of  plain 


Figure  185 


oak,  the  legs  being  square  and  tapering,  the  side  and 
back  rails  flat,  and  the  latter  slightly  curved.  The 
wood  may  be  darkened  with  ammonia,  or  stained  dark- 
green,  and  the  seat  upholstered  in  leather.  The  backs 
of  chairs  of  this  type  are  not  upholstered,  but  are  gen- 
erally made  with  top  and  bottom  rails,  the  intermediate 


316  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

space  being  filled  in  with  flat  bars  about  i  inch  wide. 

In  office  chairs  and  others  'of  a  similar  type  the.  four 
legs  are  mortised  to  the  wooden  seat,  which  is  made 
slightly  hollow  towards  the  middle  part.  The  curved 
back  is  made  up  of  several  pieces,  which  are  cut  to  form 
a  curve  and  mortised  or  doweled  together.  It  is  at- 
tached to  the  seat  by  a  series  of  turned  or  square  ver- 
tical bars  fixed  by  mortises,  the  two  at  the  ends  in 
front  being  stouter  than  the  others.  An  extra  piece  of 
curved  wood  with  a  rounded  edge  is  sometimes  fixed 
to  the  middle  part  of  the  top  of  the  back  to  serve  as  a 
shoulder- rest.  When  the  seat  is  made  to  swivel  round, 
the  legs  bend  inwards,  and  meet  at  a  small  block  of 
wood  faced  with  metal,  upon  which  the  seat  revolves. 
Office  chairs  are  sometimes  slightly  upholstered  instead 
of  being  left  altogether  plain. 

The  framework  of  an  easy-chair  is  almost  the  same 
as  that  of  an  arm-chair,  but  the  side  rails  which  sup- 
port the  seat  are  much  wider,  the  legs  are  shorter  and 
thicker,  and  the  seat  stretches  farther  back.  The  back 
is  not  so  high,  and  is  made  to  slope  slightly.  The 
space  between  the  arms  and  seat  may  be  left  open,  filled 
with  carved  or  turned  work,  or  covered  with  uphol- 
stery. Some  settees  are  made  after  the  manner  of 
large  easy-chairs,  wide  enough  to  contain  two  or  three 
persons;  the  framework  of  such  is  the  same,  but  the 
seat  and  back  are  strengthened  by  additional,  cross- 
pieces. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 


317 


Music  Stools.— These  are  made  either  with  a  fixed 
top,  or  with  a  top  that  can  be  raised.  The  former 
have  four  legs  and  the  top  is  round  or  square.  The 
legs  sometimes  slope  slightly  outwards  towards  the  feet 
to  obtain  greater  stability.  In  the  plainer  kind  of  stool, 


Figure  186 

the  seat  is  made  of  i^-inch  boards  with  moulded 
edges,  and  of  round,  square,  or  oblong  shape.  If 
round,  it  is  turned  on  the  lathe  out  of  one  piece.  If  it 
is  to  be  upholstered,  a  ^-inch  rebate  is  cut  all  round, 
and  the  upholstery  is  fastened  to  it  with  brass-headed 
nails  and  finished  off  with  gimp.  The  legs  are  either 
square  or  turned,  and  are  screwed  into  the  under  side 


318  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

of  the  seat;  they  are  strengthened  near  the  lower  ends 
by  turned  cross-rails.  The  coarse  screws  cut  at  the  top 
of  the  legs  are  not  turned  on  the  lathe  when  they  are 
being  shaped,  but  are  made  subsequently  with  the  aid 
of  a  "box-screw."  This  is  a  rectangular  block  of  wood 
with  a  handle  at  either  end,  and  pierced  by  a  hole  in 
which  a  female  screw  corresponding  to  the  male  screw 
is  cut.  The  top  end  of  the  leg  is  turned  down  for  about 
il/2  or  2  inches  till  it  fits  into  one  end  of  the  hole,  when 
it  is  pushed  in  and  turned  round  at  the  same  time,  the 
screw  being  cut  by  a  small  knife  inside.  This  method 
of  joining  legs  is  only  used  for  light  pieces  of  furniture 
and  fancy  tables,  the  legs  being  usually  attached  by 
mortise-and-tenon  joints. 

Stools  with  movable  seats  have  a  stout  turned  pillar 
to  with  three  curved  feet  are  fastened  by  mortise-and- 
tenon  joints,  meeting  it  about  6  inches  from  the  ground. 
The  top  of  the  pillar  is  cut  off  flat  and  a  hole  9  inches 
deep  bored  down  it.  A  steel  female  screw  is  fixed  into 
this,  and  a  corresponding  male  screw  about  9  inches 
long  is  fastened  to  the  under  side  of  the  top.  The 
latter  is  always  circular  and  upholstered. 

Sofas  and  Settees. — The  framework  of  a  sofa  is 
shown  in  No.  i,  Fig.  185.  The  four  legs,  which  are 
represented  simply  as  square  blocks  of  wood,  are  fitted 
to  the  front  and  back  rails  with  mortise-and-tenon 
joints.  The  upper  part  where  the  mortises  are  cut  is 
generally  made  pretty  stout  to  ensure  strength,  and 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  319 

any  resulting  clumsiness  is  concealed  by  the  upholstery. 
The  lower  part  is  tapered,  carved,  or  turned.  The  front 
and  back  rails  are  strengthened  by  an  additional  cross- 
,  piece  placed  midway,  and  a  similar  cross-piece  is  fitted 
to  the  back,  which  is  otherwise  similar  to  the  arm  of 
an  easy-chair.  A  method  of  fastening  the  head  of  the 
sofa  is  shown  in  the  illustration;  it  consists  of  two 
rails  mortised  to  the  front  and  back  legs  in  a  slanting 
position,  and  strengthened  by  two  cross-pieces.  These 
rails  are  generally  carved,  and  the  front  edges  of  both 
moulded.  The  outside  of  the  front  rail  may  also  be 
carved.  The  top  rail  of  the  back  is  sometimes  curved 
downwards  until  it  meets  the  back  rail  of  the  lower 
frame,  being  made  of  two  or  more  pieces  mortised  or 
doweled  together.  The  space  between  the  two  is  some- 
times filled  with  turned  bars.  In  order  to  obtain  light- 
ness, each  pair  of  legs  is  sometimes  joined  by  two 
slight  rails  placed  2  or  3  inches  apart  instead  of  by  a 
solid  rail. 

The  framework  of  the  simple  square  settee  is  shown 
in  No.  2,  Fig.  185.  As  all  the  woodwork  of  this  is 
usually  hidden  by  upholstery  which  reaches  nearly  down 
to  the  floor,  it  is  made  of  common  wood  and  receives 
no  high  degree  of  finish.  The  four  legs  are  turned  at 
the  lower  end  and  left  square  at  the  upper.  The  four 
rails  which  form  the  seat  are  mortised  into  the  sides 
of  the  legs,  as  are  also  the  three  rails  which  form  the 
back  and  ends. 


320  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

The  back  can  be  further  strengthened,  if  necessary, 
by  inserting  two  diagonal  bars.  These  settees  are  made 
in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  from  that  above  described 
to  the  lighter  and  more  elegant  pieces  of  furniture 
which  are  embellished  with  turned  work  and  only  partly 
upholstered.  Sometimes  the  four  legs  which  form  the 
end-pieces  are  turned  and  the  seat-frame  inserted  in 
notches  cut  in  these,  and  so  upholstered  that  the  lower 
part  of  the  latter  and  all  the  legs  are  visible. 

Settees  for  billiard-rooms  are  framed  similarly  to 
arm-chairs  (see  No.  2,  Fig.  184).  They  are  generally 
made  about  6  or  7  feet  long,  and  either  straight  or  bent 
to  suit  corners.  The  woodwork  of  a  billiard-room 
settee  is  shown  in  Fig.  186.  The  parts  are  more  mas- 
sive than  those  of  ordinary  settees.  The  legs  are  made 
of  3-in.  scantling,  those  at  the  front  being  turned,  whilst 
the  other  pair  are  bent  slightly  backwards.  The  settee 
stands  on  a  platform  about  8  inches  high,  and  of  such 
and  sides.  The  two  front  corners  of  the  platform  are 
slightly  rounded.  When  the  settee  is  not  intended  to 
be  placed  on  a  platform,  the  legs  are  made  longer  and 
a  foot-rest  is  fastened  to  the  front  about  6  inches  from 
the  floor.  This  is  made  of  i-inch  stuff  with  rounded 
edges ;  it  is  fastened  at  the  back  into  grooves  cut  in  the 
front  legs,  and  in  front  is  supported  on  stout  turned 
feet. 

Seats  for  railway-stations,  waiting-rooms,  public 
offices,  &c..  are  made  in  the  same  manner  as  billiard- 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 


321 


room  settees,  and  sometimes  have  an  additional  arm 
in  the  middle. 

Settles. — No.  i,  Fig.  187,  is  an  illustration  of  a  seat 


jj   MM.  LJJ  n-2. 

Figure  187 

or  settle  in  darkened  oak,  suitable  for  a  hall.  The  sides 
are  made  of  il/2  or  2-inch  stuff,  and  grooves  are  cut 
in  them  to  receive  the  seat,  which  is  the  same  thickness. 
The  seat  is  l/2  inch  less  in  width  than  the  sides,  and 
comes  up  flush  at  the  front,  thus  leaving  a  space  l/>  inch 
wide  for  the  back.  It  may  be  attached  to  the  sides  by 
cutting  at  each  end  a  rounded  tenon  2  inches  wide. 
These  tenons  project  about  il/2  inch  through  mortises 
cut  in  the  end-pieces.  Half-round  holes  are  cut  through 
these  projecting  pieces  so  that  they  are  flush  with  the 
sides.  When  the  seat  is  in  its  place,  a  peg  made  by 
cutting  a  piece  of  tapering  turned  wood  in  a  longitudinal 


322  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

direction  is  hammered  in  tight.  This  is  shown  in  the 
illustration,  and  holds  the  sides  and  seat  firmly  together. 
To  form  the  back,  two  horizontal  rails  are  dovetailed 
to  the  sides,  one  at  the  bottom  and  the  other  at  the  top. 
The  inner  edges  of  these  are  grooved  to  fit  a  series  of 
vertical  boards,  which  are  ^  inch  thick  and  chamfered 
at  the  edges.  The  top  edge  of  the  settle  is  moulded  or 
left  square. 

Some  settles  are  made  five  or  six  feet  high.  The 
back  of  these  is  upholstered  for  about  3  feet  above  the 
seat,  and  the  remainder  of  the  space  is  filled  with  solid 
or  fretted  panels.  A  narrow  shelf  for  china,  &c.,  is 
sometimes  fixed  near  the  top. 

Settles  (No.  2,  Fig.  187)  are  sometimes  made  of  only 
two  end-pieces  and  a  seat.  The  former  are  made  of 
i  ^2 -inch  oak,  cut  to  any  suitable  shape.  Settles  of  this 
kind  serve  as  seats  or  for  holding  large  pieces  of  china. 

Another  kind  of  settle  which  is  very  suitable  for  halls, 
has  a  seat  4  or  5  feet  wide,  and  arms  at  the  ends.  The 
lower  part  forms  a  box,  and  is  I  foot  deep,  the  lid  being 
the  seat.  The  sides  and  back  are  similar  to  those  of  an 
arm-chair.  The  four  legs  are  usually  of  2-inch  scant- 
ling; the  two  back  legs  project  above  the  seat  and  are 
joined  by  two  horizontal  i-inch  rails,  one  at  the  top 
and  the  other  nearly  at  the  level  of  the  seat.  Two  rails, 
which  are  fitted  with  panels,  join  each  pair  of  legs  and 
form  the  sides  of  the  box.  Panels  of  ^2 -inch  stuff  are 
grooved  to  these.  The  framing  of  the  lid  is  formed  of 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  323 

I -inch  stuff,  and  is  2  or  3  inches  wide.  This  kind  of- 
settle  may  be  left  plain,  or  finished  with  flat  or  chip 
carving. 

Settles  which  are  intended  for  drawing-rooms  are 
similar  in  structural  details  to  those  made  for  the  hall, 
but  they  are  much  lighter,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
back  and  sides  is  upholstered.  Many  are  fitted  with  a 
narrow  shelf  at  the  top,  and  the  back  is  curved  instead 
of  being  square. 


Bamboo  Table 


324  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

WORKSHOP  KIXKS  AND  RECIPES. 
STAINING. 

Staining  is  the  process  of  imparting  to  the  surface 
of  wood  a  color  different  from  its  natural  one.  It  con- 
sists of  two  varieties,  surface-staining  and  body-stain- 
ing. In  the  former,  as  the  name  implies,  the  staining 
is  effected  by  various  compounds  in  the  nature  of  pig- 
ments, laid  upon  the  surface  like  paint,  and  forming  a 
thin  opaque  coating,  which  does  not,  to  any  considerable 
degree,  affect  the  fibre  of  the  wood.  In  the  latter  the 
changes  are  chemical,  the  stain  being  usually  applied 
as  a  thin  wash,  which,  entering  the  pores  of  the  wood, 
colors  it  to  some  depth  below  the  surface.  Staining  re- 
quires no  preliminary  preparation,  the  stain  being  ap- 
plied directly  to  the  wood.  As  most  stains  raise  the 
grain  of  the  wood  to  a  considerable  extent,  it  is  neces- 
sary before  applying  the  varnish,  to  sand-paper  the 
wood  enough  to  render  the  grain  quite  smooth;  this 
sometimes  renders  a  second  coat  necessary,  after  which 
the  sand-paper  must  be  again  applied. 

A  Good  Black  Stain. — i.  Gall-nuts  coarsely  broken, 
2  ounces ;  rain  water,  I  quart ;  boil  until  reduced  one- 
half.  2.  White  vinegar,  i  pint ;  iron  filings,  2  ounces ; 
antimony  (powdered)  2  ounces;  vitriol,  i  ounce;  log- 
wood, a  small  handful.  Infuse  in  bottle  eight  days, 
tying  the  cork  down.  To  stain  a  piece  of  wood,  give 
the  wood  a  coating  of  No.  i,  which  acts  as  a  mordant; 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  325 

when  nearly  dry  put  on  No.  2. ;  let  it  dry  quite,  and  then 
brush  it  over  again  with  No.  2. 

Another. — Boil  y2  Ib.  of  chip  logwood  in  2  quarts 
of  water,  add  i  oz.  of  pearl-ash,  and  apply  it  hot  to 
the  work  with  a  brush;  then  take  */2  Ib.  of  logwood, 
boil  it  as  before  in  2  quarts  of  water,  and  add  y2  oz. 
of  verdigris  and  */>  oz.  of  copperas;  strain  it  off,  put 
in  y2  Ib.  of  rusty  steel  filings,  and  with  this  go  over  the 
work  a  second  time. 

Another. — Boil  the  extract  of  logwood  in  water,  and 
to  it  add  slowly  a  little  of  the  yellow  prussiate  of 
potash.  Brush  on  hot. 

Another. — Boil  I  Ib.  logwood  in  4  quarts  of  water; 
add  a  double  handful  of  walnut-peel  or  shells,  boil  it 
up  again,  take  out  the  chips,  add  a  pint  of  the  best 
vinegar  and  it  will  be  fit  for  use ;  apply  hot.  This  will 
be  improved  by  applying  over  the  first  stain  a  solution 
of  one  ounce  of  green  copperas  in  a  quart  of  water. 

Other  Black  Status. — i.  Drop  a  little  sulphuric  acid 
into  a  small  quantity  of  water;  brush  over  the  wood 
and  hold  it  to  the  fire ;  it  will  be  a  fine  black  and  receive 
a  good  polish.  2.  For  a  beautiful  black,  on  wood, 
nothing  can  exceed  black  japan.  Apply  two  coats; 
after  which,  varnish  and  polish  it.  3.  To  i  gallon 
vinegar,  add  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  iron  rust;  let  it 
stand  for  a  week ;  then  add  a  pound  of  dry  lamp-black, 
and  three-quarters  of  a  pound  copperas ;  stir  it  up  for  a 
couple  of  days.  Lay  on  five  or  six  coats  with  a  sponge, 


326  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

allowing  it  to  dry  between  each ;  polish  with  linseed  oil 
and  a  soft  woollen  rag,  and  it  will  look  like  ebony. 
4.  Vinegar,  y2  gal. ;  dry  lamp-black,  ^  Ib. ;  iron  rust 
sifted,  3  Ibs. ;  mix  and  let  stand  for  a  week.  Lay  three 
coats  of  this  on  hot,  and  then  rub  with  linseed  oil,  and 
you  will  have  a  fine  deep  black.  5.  Add  to  the  above 
stain  nut-galls,  I  oz. ;  logwood  chips,  y2  Ib. ;  copperas, 
l/4  Ib. ;  lay  on  three  coats ;  oil  well,  and  you  will  have  a 
black  stain  that  will  stand  any  kind  of  weather,  and  is 
well  adapted  for  ships'  combings,  etc.  6.  Logwood 
chips,  l/2  Ib. ;  Brazil-wood,  *4  Ib. ;  boil  for  I  y2  hours  in 
i  gallon  water.  Brush  the  wood  with  this  decoction 
while  hot;  make  a  decoction  of  nut-galls,  by  gentle 
simmering  for  three  or  four  days,  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  the  galls  in  3  qts.  water ;  give  the  wood  three  coats, 
and,  while  wet,  lay  on  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron 
(2  ozs.  to  a  quart),  and,  when  dry,  oil  or  varnish. 
7.  Give  three  coats  with  a  solution  of  copper  filings 
in  aquafortis,  and  repeatedly  brush  over  with  the  log- 
wood decoction  until  the  greenness  of  the  copper  is  de- 
stroyed. 8.  Boil  y2  Ib.  logwood  chips  in  2.  quarts 
water;  add  an  ounce  of  pearlash,  and  apply  hot  with  a 
brush.  Then  take  2  quarts  of  the  logwood  decoction, 
and  y-z  oz.  of  verdigris,  and  the  same  of  copperas ; 
strain,  and  throw  in  y2  Ib.  of  iron  rust.  Brush  the 
work  well  with  this,  and  oil. 

Brown  Stain.— -Boil  i  Ib.  of  the  brown  pigment  called 
Terre  de  Cassel  with  4  quarts  of  water,  until  it  is  re- 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  327 

duced  one-third.  Mix  two  ounces  (Troy)  of  white 
potash  with  sufficient  water  to  dissolve  it,  and  mix  with 
the  Terre  de  Cassel.  This  stain  must  be  applied  with  a 
brush,  two  or  even  three  times,  according  to  the  depth 
of  the  shade  required. 

Walnut  Stain. — Mix  together,  by  stirring,  i  quart 
spirits  of  turpentine,  I  pint  asphaltum  varnish,  i  pint 
of  japan,  i  Ib.  dry  burnt  umber,  i  Ib.  dry  Venetian  red; 
apply  with  a  brush.  This  stain  is  transparent,  and  al- 
lows the  grain  of  the  wood  to  show  through. 

Another. — Boil  i]/2  ounces  of  washing-soda,  and  Y\ 
ounce  bichromate  of  potash,  in  i  quart  of  water ;  add 
2^2  ounces  Vandyke  brown.  This  stain  may  be  used 
either  hot  or  cold. 

Another. — With  a  brush  apply  a  thin  solution  of 
permanganate  of  potassa  in  water,  until  the  desired 
color  is  produced,  allowing  each  coat  to  dry  before 
another  is  applied. 

Oak  Stain. — Add  to  a  quart  of  water  2  ounces  each 
of  potash  and  pearlash.  This  is  a  very  good  stain,  but 
it  should  be  used  carefully  as  it  blisters  the  hands  and 
softens  brushes.  The  stain  may  be  made  lighter  by 
adding  more  water. 

Other  Oak  Stains. — To  darken  the  color  of  oak  any 
of  the  following  may  be  used : 

Liquid  ammonia  laid  on  evenly  with  a  rag  or  brush 
will  deepen  the  color  immediately,  and  it  will  not  fade, 
this  being  an  artificial  production  of  result  produced 
naturally  by  age. 


328  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

Bichromate  of  potash,  dissolved  in  cold  water,  and 
applied  with  a  brush,  will  produce  a  similar  result. 

A  decoction  of  green  walnut-shells  will  bring  new 
oak  to  any  shade  or  nearly  black. 

Rosewood  Stain. — Mix  in  a  bottle  Y^  Ib.  of  extract 
of  logwood,  i  oz.  salts  of  tartar,  and  i  pint  of  water : 
in  another  bottle,  put  i  Ib.  of  old  iron  in  small  pieces. 
and  i  pint  of  vinegar,  which,  after  standing  twenty- 
four  hours,  will  be  ready  for  use;  make  a  hard  stiff 
brush  with  a  piece  of  rattan  sharpened  at  one  end  in  a 
wedge  shape,  pounding  it  so  as  to  separate  the  fibre. 
Mix  in  i  pint  of  varnish,  54  Ib-  of  finely-powdered  rose- 
pink.  The  materials  are  now  ready,  and  the  first  thing 
in  the  process  is  to  stain  the  wood  with  the  logwood 
stain;  give  two  coats  of  this,  allowing  the  first  to  be- 
come nearly  dry  before  applying  the  second;  then  dip 
the  rattan  brush  in  the  vinegar,  and  with  it  form  the 
grain,  after  which  give  the  work  a  coat  of  the  varnish 
and  rose  pink.  There  can  be  no  definite  directions 
given  for  graining,  except  to  study  the  natural  wood 
and  imitate  it  as  near  as  possible.  With  the  above 
materials  skilfully  applied,  any  common  wood  can  be 
made  to  resemble  rosewood  so  nearly  that  it  will  take 
a  good  judge  to  distinguish  the  difference. 

Another. — Boil  i  Ib.  of  logwood  in  i  gallon  of  water, 
add  a  double  handful  of  walnut  shells,  boil  the  whole 
again,  strain  the  liquor  and  add  to  it  i  pint  of  the  best 
vinegar.  It  is  then  ready  for  use.  Apply  it  boiling 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  329 

hot,  and  when  the  wood  is  dry,  form  red  veins  in  imita- 
tion of  the  grain  of  rosewood  with  a  brush  dipped  in 
the  following  solution:  Nitric  acid,  i  pint;  metallic 
tin,  i  oz. ;  sal  ammoniac,  i  oz.  Mix  and  set  aside  to 
dissolve,  occasionally  shaking. 

Cherry  Stain. — Mix  together,  by  stirring,  i  quart  of 
spirits  of  turpentine,  i  pint  of  varnish,  and  i  Ib.  of  dry 
burnt  sienna ;  apply  with  a  brush,  and  after  it  has  been 
'on  about  five  minutes  wipe  it  off  with  rags.  This  stain 
takes  about  12  hours  to  dry. 

Another  Cherry  Stain. — Take  i  quart  alcohol,  2  ozs. 
of  dragon's-blood;  pulverize  the  latter  along  with  J4 
oz.  of  alkanet  root ;  mix,  and  let  stand  in  a  warm  place 
a  couple  of  days.  Shake  frequently  in  the  meantime. 
Apply  with  a  sponge  or  brush.  Two  or  three  coats 
may  be  required.  This  makes  a  fine  stain. 

Red  Stain  for  Common  Work. — Archil  will  produce 
a  very  good  stain  of  itself  when  used  cold,  but  if  after 
one  or  two  coats  have  been  applied  and  suffered  to  get 
almost  dry,  it  is  brushed  over  with  a  hot  solution  of 
pearlash  in  water,  it  will  improve  the  color. 

Mahogany  Stain. — To  darken  mahogany,  apply  a 
weak  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash  in  water.  Apply 
successive  coats,  allowing  each  to  dry,  until  the  required 
shade  is  secured. 

Surface  Stains.— The  following  are  for  the  most  part 
used  to  apply  to  woods  of  inferior  quality,  to  make 
them  resemble  choicer  woods.  The  colors  are  all  to  be 


330  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

mixed  with  very  thin  glue  size,  laid  on  warm  with  a 
soft  woollen  material,  and  the  wood  wiped  dry  after 
application.  All  the  colors  used  in  staining  should  be 
well  pulverized,  and  before  use  the  liquid  should  be 
strained. 

Imitation  Oak  Stain. — Equal  parts  burnt  umber  and 
brown  ochre. 

Imitation  Mahogany  Stain. — One  part  Venetian  red 
and  two  parts  yellow  lead. 

Imitation  Rosewood  Stain. — Venetian  red,  darkened 
with  lampblack  to  required  shade. 

Imitation  Walnut  Stain. — Burnt  umber  and  yellow 
ochre,  mixed  in  proportions  to  give  desired  shade. 

Fine  Crimson  Stain. — Boil  i  Ib.  of  good  Brazil  dust 
in  3  quarts  of  water  for  an  hour;  strain  it,  and  add 
y2  oz.  of  cochineal;  boil  it  again  gently  for  half  an 
hour,  and  it  will  be  fit  for  use. 

If  you  will  have  it  more  of  a  scarlet  tint,  boil  half  an 
ounce  of  saffron  in  a  quart  of  water  for  an  hour,  and 
pass  over  the  work  previous  to  the  red  stain. 

Purple  Stain. — To  i  Ib.  of  good  chip  logwood  put 

3  quarts  of  water;  boil  it  well  for  an  hour;  then  add 

4  ozs.  of  pearlash,  and  2  ozs.  of  indigo  pounded. 

Fine  Blue  Stain. — Into  i  Ib.  of  oil  of  vitriol  (sul- 
phuric acid)  in  a  clean  glass  phial,  put  4  ozs.  of  indigo, 
and  proceed  as  above  directed  in  dyeing  purple. 

Fine  Green  Stain. — To  2  pints  of  the  strongest  vine- 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  331 

gar,  add  4  ozs.  of  the  best  verdigris  pounded  fine,  l/* 
oz.  of  sap  green,  and  l/2  oz.  of  indigo. 

Distilled  vinegar,  or  verjuice,  improves  the  color. 

Yellow  Stain. — Dissolve  l/4  Ib.  tumeric  in  i  pint 
alcohol;  let  it  stand  until  the  tumeric  settles  to  the 
bottom. 

Another. — A  small  piece  of  aloes  added  to  the  varnish 
will  have  all  the  effect  of  a  bright  yellow  stain. 

To  Brighten  Stains. — Any  of  the  stains  named  (ex- 
cept the  surface  stains)  will  be  rendered  much  more 
brilliant  by  an  application  of  the  following:  i  oz.  nitric 
acid,  l/2  teaspoonful  muriatic  acid,  %  oz.  grain  tin. 
2  ozs.  rain  water.  Mix  in  a  bottle,  at  least  t\vo  days 
before  using,  and  keep  the  bottle  well  corked. 


332  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

DYEING  WOOD. 

Dyeing  wood  is  mostly  applied  for  the  purpose  of 
veneers,  while  staining  is  more  generally  had  recourse  to 
to  give  the  desired  color  to  the  article  after  it  has  been 
manufactured.  In  the  one  case,  the  color  should  pene- 
trate throughout,  while  in  the  latter  the  surface  is  all 
that  is  essential. 

In  dyeing,  pear-tree,  holly  and  beech,  take  the  best 
black;  but  for  most  colors,  ht>lly  is  preferable.  It  is 
also  best  to  have  wood  as  young  and  as  newly  cut  as 
possible.  After  the  veneers  are  cut,  they  should  be 
allowed  to  lie  in  a  trough  of  water  for  four  or  five 
days  before  they  are  put  into  the  copper ;  as  the  water, 
acting  as  a  purgative  to  the  wood,  brings  out  an  abun- 
dance of  slimy  matter,  which  must  be  removed,  or  the 
wood  will  never  be  a  good  color.  After  this  purificatory 
process,  they  should  be  dried  in  the  open  air  for  at  least 
twelve  hours.  They  are  then  ready  for  the  copper. 
By  these  simple  means  the  color  will  strike  much  quicker, 
and  be  of  a  brighter  hue.  It  would  also  add  to  the 
improvement  of  the  colors,  if,  after  the  veneers  have 
boiled  a  few  hours,  they  are  taken  out,  dried  in  the  air, 
and  again  immersed  in  the  coloring  copper.  Always 
dry  veneers  in  the  open  air,  for  fire  invariably  injures 
the  colors. 

Fine  Black  Dye. — Put  6  Ibs.  of  chip  logwood  into  the 
copper,  with  as  many  veneers  as  it  will  conveniently 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  333 

hold,  without  pressing  too  tight ;  fill  it  with  water,  and 
let  it  boil  slowly  for  about  three  hours;  then  add  half 
a  pound  of  powdered  verdigris,  half  a  pound  of  cop- 
peras, and  4  ounces  of  bruised  nut-galls ;  fill  the  copper 
up  with  vinegar  as  the  water  evaporates;  let  it  boil 
gently  two  hours  each  day  till  the  wood  is  dyed  through. 

Another. — Procure  some  liquor  from  a  tanner's  pit, 
or  make  a  strong  decoction  of  oak  bark,  and  to  every 
gallon  of  the  liquor  add  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  green 
copperas,  and  mix  them  well  together;  put  the  liquor 
into  the  copper,  and  make  it  quite  hot,  but  not  boil;  im- 
merse the  veneers  in  it,  and  let  them  remain  for  an  hour ; 
take  them  out,  and  expose  them  to  the  air  till  it  has 
penetrated  its  substance ;  then  add  some  logwood  to  the 
solution,  place  the  veneers  again  in  it,  and  let  it  simmer 
for  two  or  three  hours;  let  the  whole  cool  gradually, 
dry  the  veneers  in  the  shade,  and  they  will  be  a  very 
fine  black. 

Fine  Blue  Dye. — Into  a  clean  glass  bottle  put  I  Ib. 
of  oil  of  vitriol,  and  4  ozs.  of  the  best  indigo  pounded 
in  a  mortar  (take  care  to  set  the  bottle  in  a  basin  or 
earthen  glazed  pan,  as  it  will  ferment)  ;  then  put  the 
veneers  into  a  copper  or  stone  trough ;  fill  it  rather  more 
than  one-third  with  water,  and  add  as  much  of  the 
vitriol  and  indigo  (stirring  it  about)  as  will  make  a  fine 
blue,  which  may  be  known  by  trying  it  with  a  piece  of 
white  paper  or  wood.  Let  the  veneers  remain  till  the 
dye  has  struck  through. 


334  THE   PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

The  color  will  be  much  improved  if  the  solution  of 
indigo  in  vitriol  be  kept  a  few  weeks  before  using  it. 
The  color  will  strike  better  if  the  veneers  are  boiled 
in  plain  water  till  completely  soaked  through,  and  then 
allowed  for  a  few  hours  to  dry  partially,  previous  to 
being  immersed  in  the  dye. 

Another. — Throw  pieces  of  quicklime  into  soft 
water;  stir  it  well;  when  settled,  strain  or  pour  off  the 
clear  part;  then  to  every  gallon  add  ten  or  twelve 
ounces  of  the  best  turnsole;  put  the  whole  into  the 
copper  with  the  veneers,  which  should  be  of  white  holly, 
and  prepared  as  usual  by  boiling  in  water;  let  them 
simmer  gently  till  the  color  has  sufficiently  penetrated, 
but  be  careful  not  to  let  them  boil  in  it,  as  it  would 
injure  the  color. 

A  Fine  Yellozv  Dye. — Reduce  4  Ibs.  of  the  root  of 
barberry,  by  sawing,  to  dust,  which  put  in  a  copper  or 
brass  trough ;  add  4  ozs.  of  turmeric  and  4  gallons  of 
water,  then  put  in  as  many  white  holly  veneers  as  the 
liquor  will  cover;  boil  them  together  for  three  hours, 
often  turning  them ;  when  cool,  add  2  ozs.  of  aquafortis 
and  the  dye  will  strike  through  much  sooner. 

A  Bright  Yellow  Dye. — To  every  gallon  of  water 
necessary  to  cover  the  veneers,  add  i  Ib.  of  French 
berries;  boil  the  veneers  till  the  color  has  penetrated 
through ;  add  to  the  infusion  of  the  French  berries,  the 
liquid  for  brightening  colors  given  on  page  43,  and  let 
the  veneers  remain  for  two  or  three  hours,  and  the 
color  will  be  very  bright. 


THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER  335 

Bright  Green  Dye. — Proceed  as  in  either  of  the 
previous  receipts  to  produce  a  yellow;  but  instead  of 
adding  aquafortis  or  the  brightening  liquid,  add  as 
much  vitriolated  indigo  (see  page  44)  as  will  produce 
the  desired  color. 

Green  Dye. — Dissolve  4  ozs.  of  the  best  verdigris, 
and  of  sap-green  and  indigo  half  an  ounce  each,  in  3 
pints  of  the  best  vinegar ;  put  in  the  veneers,  and  gently 
boil  till  the  color  has  penetrated  sufficiently. 

The  hue  of  the  green  may  be  varied  by  altering  the 
proportion  of  the  ingredients;  and  it  is  advised,  unless 
wanted  for  a  particular  purpose,  to  leave  out  the  sap- 
green,  as  it  is  a  vegetable  color  very  apt  to  change,  or 
turn  brown,  when  exposed  to  the  air. 

Bright  Red  Dye. — To  2  Ibs.  of  genuine  Brazil  dust, 
add  4  gallons  of  water ;  put  in  as  many  veneers  as  the 
liquor  will  cover;  boil  them  for  three  hours;  then  add 
2  ozs.  of  alum,  and  2  ozs.  of  aquafortis,  and  keep  it 
lukewarm  until  it  has  struck  through. 

Red  Dye. — To  every  pound  of  logwood  chips,  add 
2  gallons  of  water;  put  in  the  veneers,  and  boil  as  in 
the  last ;  then  add  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  brighten- 
ing liquid  (see  page  43)  till  you  see  the  color  to  your 
mind;  keep  the  whole  as  warm  as  the  finger  can  be 
borne  in  it,  till  the  color  has  sufficiently  penetrated. 

The  logwood  chips  should  be  picked  from  all  foreign 
substances,  with  which  it  generally  abounds,  as  bark, 
dirt,  etc. ;  and  it  is  always  best  when  fresh  cut,  which 


336  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

may  be  known  by  its  appearing  of  a  bright-red  color; 
for  if  stale,  it  will  look  brown,  and  not  yield  so  much 
coloring  matter. 

Purple  Dye. — To  2  Ibs.  of  chip  logwood  and  half  a 
pound  of  Brazil  dust,  add  4  gallons  of  water,  and  after 
putting  in  the  veneers,  boil  them  for  at  least  three 
hours ;  then  add  6  ozs.  of  pearlash  and  2  ozs.  of  alum ; 
let  them  boil  for  two  or  three  hours  every  day,  till 
the  color  has  struck  through. 

The  Brazil  dust  only  contributes  to  make  the  purple 
of  a  more  red  cast ;  you  may,  therefore,  omit  it,  if  you 
require  a  deep  bluish  purple. 

Another. — Boil  2  Ibs.  of  logwood,  either  in  chips  or 
powder,  in  4  gallons  of  water,  with  the  veneers;  after 
boiling  till  the  color  is  well 'struck  in,  add  by  degrees 
vitriolated  indigo  (see  page  44)  till  the  purple  is  of  the 
shade  required,  which  may  be  known  by  trying  it  with 
a  piece  of  paper ;  let  it  then  boil  for  one  hour,  and  keep 
the  liquid  in  a  milk-warm  state  till  the  color  has  pene- 
trated the  veneer.  This  method,  when  properly  man- 
aged, will  produce  a  brilliant  purple,  not  so  likely  to 
fade  as  the  foregoing. 

Liquid  for  Brightening  and  Setting  Colors. — To 
every  pint  of  strong  aquafortis,  add  I  oz.  of  grain  tin, 
and  a  piece  of  sal  ammoniac  of  the  size  of  a  walnut ; 
set  it  by  to  dissolve,  shake  the  bottle  round  with  the 
cork  out,  from  time  to  time;  in  the  course  of  two  or 
three  days  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  This  will  be  found  an 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  337 

admirable  liquid  to  add  "to  any  color,  as  it  not  only 
brightens  it,  but  renders  it  less  likely  to  fade  from  ex- 
posure to  the  air. 

Orange  Dye. — Let  the  veneers  be  dyed  by  either  of 
the  methods  given  in  page  45,  of  a  fine  deep  yellow, 
and  while  they  are  still  wet  and  saturated  with  the 
dye,  transfer  them  to  the  bright  red  dye  as  in  page 
45,  till  the  color  penetrates  equally  throughout. 

Silver  Gray  Dye. — Expose  to  the  weather  in  a  cast- 
iron  pot  of  six  or  eight  gallons,  old  iron  nails,  hoops, 
etc.,  till  covered  with  rust ;  add  i  gallon  of  vinegar  and  2 
of  water,  boil  all  well  for  an  hour;  have  the  veneers 
ready,  which  must  be  hard-wood  (not  too  dry),  put 
them  in  the  copper  used  to  dye  black,  and  pour  the 
iron  liquor  over  them;  add  I  Ib.  of  chip  logwood  and 
2.  ozs.  of  bruised  nut-galls ;  then  boil  up  another  pot  of 
the  iron  liquor  to  supply  the  copper  with,  keeping  the 
veneers  covered,  and  boiling  two  hours  a  day,  till  the 
required  color  is  obtained. 

Gray  Dye. — Expose  any  quantity  of  old  iron,  or 
what  is  better,  the  borings  of  gun-barrels,  etc.,  in  any 
convenient  vessel,  and  from  time  to  time  sprinkle  them 
with  spirits  of  salt  (muriatic  acid)  diluted  in  four  times 
its  quantity  of  water,  till  they  are  very  thickly  covered 
with  rust;  then  to  every  six  pounds  add  a  gallon  of 
water,  in  which  has  been  dissolved  two  ounces  of  salt 
of  tartar ;  lay  the  veneers  in  the  copper,  and  cover  them 
with  this  liquid ;  let  it  boil  for  two  or  three  hours  till 


338  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

well  soaked,  then  to  every  gallon  of  liquor  add  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  green  copperas,  and  keep  the 
whole  at  a  moderate  temperature  till  the  dye  has 
sufficiently  penetrated. 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  339 

GILDING,  SILVERING  AND  BRONZING. 

Gilding,  Silvering  and  Bronzing  are  processes  of 
applying  to  previously  prepared  surfaces  a  thin  layer  of 
gold  or  silver  leaf,  or  in  bronzing,  of  a  fine  powder, 
prepared  from  various  metals  and  intended  to  imitate 
the  peculiar  appearance  of  genuine  bronze.  The  proc- 
esses of  gilding  and  silvering  being  identical,  the  de- 
scription of  one  will  suffice  to  explain  the  other. 

Gilding. — Gold  leaf,  applied  to  articles  of  furniture 
as  a  means  of  decoration,  is  used  in  two  ways;  it  is 
applied  over  an  ordinary  varnish  or  other  finish,  in 
which  case  but  little  special  preparation  is  necessary; 
or,  as  when  used  for  picture  frames,  cornices,  etc.,  it  is 
applied  to  a  specially  prepared  foundation,  the  basis  of 
which  is  whiting,  mixed  with  various  other  ingredients 
suggested  by  experience  or  fancy.  In  either  case,  the 
gold  leaf  is  caused  to  adhere  to  the  work,  by  size  special- 
ly prepared  for  the  purpose,  receipts  for  which  follow 
herewith ;  the  size  being  first  applied  to  the  work,  and 
when  it  has  become  of  the  right  consistency,  the  gold 
is  laid  upon  it.  OIL-GILDING  and  BURNISH-GILDING 
are  different  methods  used  to  obtain  certain  desired 
effects,  the  former  principally  for  articles  exposed  to  the 
weather,  and  for  heightening  the  effect  of  incised  carv- 
ing or  engraving,  and  the  latter  for  picture-frames  and 
articles  having  a  specially  prepared  foundation,  whose 
entire  surface  is  to  be  gilded.  It  is  intended  that  the 


340  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

gold  shall  adhere  to  the  work  only  in  the  places  to 
which  the  size  has  been  applied,  but  the  smallest  portion 
of  oil  or  even  a  slight  dampness  may  cause  the  gold  to 
partially  adhere  to  the  adjoining  surface,  resulting  in 
slightly  ragged  edges;  to  prevent  this,  before  applying 
the  size  to  the  desired  design,  the  entire  surface  is 
covered  with  a  thin  film  of  some  substance  perfectly  free 
from  moisture,  and  easily  removable  by  water,  after 
completion  of  the  process.  Directions  regarding  this 
preliminary  process  are  given  under  the  caption :  To 
PREVENT  GOLD  ADHERING. 

The  Requisites. — First,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  leaf- 
gold,  which  is  of  two  sorts — the  deep  gold,  as  it  is  called, 
and  the  pale  gold.  The  former  is  the  best;  the  latter 
very  useful,  and  may  occasionally  be  introduced  for 
variety  or  effect. 

Second,  a  gilder's  cushion :  an  oblong  piece  of  wood, 
covered  with  rough  calf-skin,  stuffed  with  flannel  sev- 
eral times  doubled,  with  a  border  of  parchment,  about 
four  inches  deep,  at  one  end,  to  prevent  the  air  blowing 
the  leaves  about  when  placed  on  the  cushion. 

Thirdly,  a  gilding-knife,  with  a  straight  and  very 
smooth  edge,  to  cut  the  gold. 

Fourthly,  several  camel-hair  pencils  in  sizes,  and 
tips,  made  of  a  few  long  camel's  hairs  put  between  two 
cards,  in  the  same  manner  as  hairs  are  put  into  tin 
cases  for  brushes,  thus  making  a  flat  brush  with  a  very 
few  hairs. 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  341 

Lastly,  a  burnisher,  which  is  a  crooked  piece  of 
agate  set  in  a  long  wooden  handle. 

Sizes. — These  are  of  two  kinds :  oil  sizes  are  those 
which  when  applied,  present  an  adhesive  surface,  re- 
quiring the  immediate  laying  of  the  gold-leaf  upon  it ; 
of  this  class  is  the  oil-size  commonly  used  in  decorating 
furniture;  water-sizes  are  those  that  are  allowed  to 
become  dry  and  hard  when  applied,  and  are  rendered 
adhesive  when  the  gold  is  to  be  laid,  by  brushing  over 
with  water;  for  burnish-gilding  these  are  always  em- 
ployed, as  oil-size  does  not  dry  sufficiently  hard  to 
permit  of  burnishing. 

Oil-Size  for  Oil-Gilding. — Grind  calcined  red-ochre 
with  the  best  and  oldest  drying-oil.  When  desired  for 
use,  add  sufficient  oil  of  turpentine  to  make  it  work 
freely. 

Parchment-Size. — For  preparing  Frames,  etc. — To 
half  a  pound  of  parchment  shavings,  or  cuttings  of 
white  leather,  add  three  quarts  of  water,  and  boil  it 
in  a  proper  vessel  till  reduced  to  nearly-half  the  quan- 
tity ;  then  take  it  off  the  fire,  and  strain  it  through  a 
sieve.  Be  careful  in  the  boiling  to  keep  it  well  stirred, 
and  do  not  let  burn. 

Gold-Size  for  Burnish-Gilding.— Grind  fine  sal- 
ammoniac  well  with  a  muller  and  stone ;  scrape  into  it 
a  little  beef  suet,  and  grind  all  well  together;  after 
which,  mix  in  with  a  pallet-knife  a  small  proportion 
of  parchment-size  with  a  double  proportion  of  water. 


342  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

When  about  to  use,  add  parchment-size  until  it  will 
just  flow  from  the  brush. 

Another. — Grind  a  lump  of  tobacco-pipe  clay  into  a 
very  stiff  paste  with  thin  size ;  add  a  small  quantity  of 
ruddle  and  fine  black  lead,  ground  very  fine,  and  temper 
the  whole  with  a  small  piece  of  tallow.  When  ready 
to  use,  reduce  with  parchment-size  until  it  will  just 
flow  from  the  brush. 

Another. — Grind  separately  in  water,  i  Ib.  Armenian 
bole,  2  ozs.  red  lead,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  black  lead ; 
mix,  and  regrind  with  a  small  quantity  of  olive  oil. 
Reduce  with  parchment-size  to  the  proper  consistency. 

To  Prevent  Gold  Adhering. — Either  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing methods  will  prevent  gold-leaf  or  bronze  from 
adhering  to  the  surface  beyond  the  outlines  of  the  sizing 
laid  on  to  receive  it : 

1.  Whiting  used  dry,  and  applied  by  means  of  a 
pounce  bag, 

2.  Whiting  mixed  in  water,  and  applied  with  a  soft 
brush.     When  the  water  has  evaporated,  dust  off  the 
superfluous   whiting   with   an   ordinary   paint   duster. 
By  this  method  a  very  thin  coating  of  whiting  remains, 
which   is   free   from  any   grittiness.      One   advantage 
gained  by  the  use  of  whiting  thus  applied  is,  it  fur- 
nishes a  whitish  ground  over  which  clear  varnish  or 
oil-size  may  be  distinctly  seen  as  the  striping  progresses. 
After  the  leaf  or  bronze  has  been  applied,  the  work 
must  be  carefully  washed,  so  as  to  insure  the  removal 
of  the  whiting. 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  343 

3.  White  of  egg  reduced  with  water,  and  applied 
with  a  piece  of  sponge.  , 

4.  A  thin  wash  of  starch  water,  either  brushed  on 
with  a  flat  camel-hair  brush,  or  applied  with  a  soft 
sponge. 

5.  Take  ball  liquorice  and  water,  a  weak  solution, 
and  apply  with  a  soft  brush.     This  may  be  kept  in  a 
bottle  ready  for  use  at  any  time. 

,  6.  Cut  a  new  potato  in  two,  and  rub  over  the  part 
to  be  sized  with  the  raw  face  exposed,  allowing  the 
juice  to  remain  until  dry. 

It  will  be  observed  that  any  substance  which  inter- 
poses a  film  over  the  varnish,  itself  being  free  from 
tackiness  and  readily  removed  by  water,  will  answer 
the  purpose. 

Oil  Gilding. — Applying  the  Gold. — If  the  wood  to 
be  gilded  is  finished  with  varnish  or  otherwise,  no  ad- 
ditional foundation  is  necessary  upon  which  to  lay  the 
gold-leaf;  if  the  wood  is  not  finished,  after  it  has  been 
smoothed  and  dusted,  give  it  one  or  two  coats  of  parch- 
ment size,  after  it  is  perfectly  dry  and  hard,  again 
smoothing  the  surface  with  fine  sand-paper.  That  the 
gold  may  not  adhere  to  any  part  of  the  work  except 
where  the  size  is  hard,  powder  the  surface  lightly  with 
whiting  from  a  pounce-bag,  which  is  a  small  bag  made 
of  material  sufficiently  loose  to  permit  the  powdered 
whiting  to  sift  through  as  fine  dust ;  if  preferred,  any 
of  the  preceding  receipts  for  that  purpose  can  be  used 


344  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

instead.  Remove  the  surplus  whiting  with  the  dusting- 
brush,  and  the  work  is  then  ready  for  the  size.  Apply 
this  with  a  sable  or  fit  brush  of  the  proper  size,  care- 
fully observing  to  make  the  outer  lines  of  the  design 
clear  and  sharp,  that  the  work  may  not  appear  ragged. 
Let  the  size  remain  until  it  feels  tacky,  when  the  gold 
may  be  applied.  This  is  the  most  difficult  .part  of  the 
operation,  and  experience  is  necessary  before  gold-leaf 
can  be  laid  smoothly  without  a  wrinkle  or  a  break. 
Turn  a  leaf  of  gold  out  of  the  book  upon  the  cushion ; 
breathe  gently  upon  the  center  of  the  leaf  and  it  will 
lay  flat  on  the  cushion;  cut  it  to  the  proper  size  by 
bringing  the  knife  perpendicularly  over  it,  and  sawing 
it  gently  until  divided.  Take  your  tip  (a  brush  used 
for  the  purpose)  and  after  drawing  it  lightly  over  your 
hair  to  remove  any  particles  of  dust  that  may  be  upon 
it,  breathe  upon  it  gently,  which  will  dampen  it  suffi- 
ciently to  cause  the  leaf  of  gold  to  adhere  to  it ;  lay  the 
tip  upon  the  leaf  of  gold  and  carefully  transfer  it  to  the 
work;  blow  upon  it  gently  and  it  will  straighten  out 
and  adhere.  It  may  be  rendered  quite  smooth  by  slight- 
ly dabbing  it  with  a  bit  of  cotton.  In  about  an  hour 
wash  off  the  superfluous  gold  from  the  edges,  with  a 
sponge  and  water.  If  the  article  is  to  be  exposed  to 
the  weather  or  much  wear,  the  gilding  may  be  varnished 
with  copal  varnish. 

Burnish-Gilding. — As  previously  stated,  this  process 
requires  a  specially  prepared  foundation  upon  which  to 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  345 

lay  the  gold,  and  as  the  preparation  of  this  foundation 
is  a  distinct  trade,  the  furniture  dealer  or  cabinet-maker 
seldom  finds  it  necessary  to  undertake  it,  the  articles 
corning  to  his  hand  ready-prepared  for  gilding;  but  as 
in  repairing  picture-frames,  cornices,  mirror  frames, 
etc.,  it  frequently  becomes  necessary  to  renew  the 
foundation,  a  comprehensive  description  of  the  whole 
process  is  given. 

Preparing  the  Wood-work. — After  smoothing  and 
dusting  the  work,  coat  the  frames  in  every  part  with 
boiling-hot  parchment-size,  as  previously  described, 
then  mix  a  sufficient  quantity  of  whiting  with  size  to 
the  consistency  of  thick  cream,  and  with  it  by  means  of 
a  brush,  coat  every  part  of  the  frame  several  times,  per- 
mitting each  coat  to  become  perfectly  dry  before  pro- 
ceeding with  the  next.  The  wood  will  thus  be  covered 
with  a  layer  of  hard  whiting  nearly  or  quite  a  six- 
teenth of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  size  must  not  be 
too  thick,  and  when  mixed  with  the  whiting  should  not 
be  so  hot  as  the  preliminary  coat  of  size. 

Polishing. — When  the  prepared  frames  are  quite  dry, 
clean  and  polish  them.  To  do  this,  wet  a  small  piece 
at  a  time,  and,  with  a  smooth,  fine  piece  of  cloth,  dipped 
in  water,  rub  the  part  till  all  the  bumps  and  inequalities 
are  removed ;  and  for  those  parts  where  the  fingers  will 
not  enter,  as  the  mouldings,  etc.,  wind  the  wet  cloth 
round  a  piece  of  wood,  and  by  this  means  make  the 
surface  all  smooth  and  even  alike. 


346  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

Where  there  is  carved  work,  etc.,  it  will  sometimes 
be  necessary  to  bring  the  mouldings  to  their  original 
sharpness  by  means  of  chisels,  gouges,  etc.,  as  the 
preparation  will  be  apt  to  fill  up  all  the  finer  parts  of 
the  work,  which  must  be  thus  restored.  It  is  sometimes 
the  practice,  after  polishing,  to  go  over  the  work  once 
with  fine  yellow  or  Roman  ochre;  but  this  is' rarely 
necessary. 

Applying  the  Size. — Select  the  proper  gold  size  from 
the  receipts  previously  given ;  add  parchment  size  until 
it  will  just  flow  from  the  brush ;  make  it  quite  hot,  and 
apply  it  to  the  work  with  a  very  soft  brush,  taking  care 
not  to  make  the  first  coat  too  thick;  let  it  dry  and  give 
two  or  three  successive  coats,  after  the  last  brushing  it 
with  a  stiff  brush  to  remove  any  inequalities.  The 
work  is  then  ready  for  the  gold. 

Laying  the  Gold. — The  manipulation  of  the  gold-leaf 
has  been  described  under  the  heading  OIL-&LDING.  In 
the  process  now  being  described,  the  size  used  (being 
water-size,  which  as  previously  explained  is  permitted 
to  become  hard  and  dry  after  being  applied)  must  be 
moistened  to  cause  the  gold-leaf  to  adhere  to  it.  For 
this  purpose,  with  a  long-haired  camel-hair  pencil, 
dipped  in  water,  go  over  as  much  of  the  work  as  you 
intend  the  piece  of  gold  to  cover;  then  lay  the  gold 
upon  it  in  the  manner  previously  explained.  Be  sure 
that  the  part  to  which  the  gold  is  applied  is  sufficiently 
wet ;  indeed  it  must  be  floating,  or  the  gold  will  be  apt 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  347 

to  crack.  Proceed  in  this  manner  a  little  at  a  time, 
and  do  not  attempt  to  cover  too  much  at  once,  until  by 
experience  you  are  able  to  handle  the  gold  with  free- 
dom. In  proceeding  with  the  work,  if  any  flows  or 
cracks  appear,  immediately  apply  a  portion  of  gold  suf- 
ficient to  cover  them.  Sometimes  when  the  gold  does 
not  appear  to  adhere  sufficiently  tight,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  draw  a  pencil  quite  filled  with  water  close  to 
the  edge  of  the  gold,  that  the  water  may  run  under- 
neath it  and  soften  the  size. 

Burnishing. — When  the  work  is  covered  with  gold, 
set  it  by  to  dry;  there  is  a  particular  state  or  degree 
of  dryness,  known  only  by  experience  in  which  the 
moulding  is  in  a  fit  state  for  burnishing ;  it  will  probab- 
ly be  ready  to  burnish  in  about  eight  of  ten  hours,  but 
it  will  depend  on  the  warmth  of  .the  room  or  state  of 
the  air. 

When  it  is  ready,  those  parts  intended  to  be  bur- 
nished must  be  dusted  with  a  soft  brush ;  then  wiping 
the  burnisher  with  a  piece  of  soft  wash-leather  (quite 
dry)  begin  to  burnish  about  an  inch  or  two  in  length 
at  a  time,  taking  care  not  to  bear  too  hard,  but  with 
a  gentle  and  quick  motion,  applying  the  tool  until  all 
the  parts  of  the  surface  are  equally  bright. 

Matting  or  Dead  Gold. — Certain  portions  only  of 
the  work  are  burnished,  according  to  the  fancy,  and 
the  facility  with  which  the  burnishing-tool  can  be  ap- 
plied ;  the  remaining  parts  are  now  to  be  deprived  of 


348  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

their  metallic  lustre,  to  make  a  more  effective  contrast 
with  the  burnishing.  The  parts  thus  treated  are  said 
to  be  matted  or  dead-gold.  The  process  is  as  follows  • 

Grind  some  vermilion  or  yellow  ochre  very  fine,  and 
mix  a  very  small  portion  either  with  the  parchment 
size  or  with  the  white  of  an  egg,  and  with  a  very  soft 
brush  lay  it  evenly  on  the  parts  to  be  dulled;  if  well 
done,  it  will  add  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  work. 
Previous  to  matting,  the  work  must  be  well  cleared  of 
superfluous  gold,  by  means  of  a  soft  brush. 

Finishing. — In  elaborate  works  it  is  frequently  im- 
possible to  lay  gold-leaf  into  all  the  intricacies  of  an 
elaborate  design,  and  the  parts  thus  left  bare  must  be 
finished  by  touching  up  with  a  small  brush  charged  with 
shell-gold,  or  gold-powder,  mixed  with  gum-Arabic  to 
the  proper  consistency.  The  following  receipt  describes 
the  preparation  of  shell-gold : 

Shell  Gold. — Take  any  quantity  of  leaf-gold  and 
grind  it  with  a  small  portion  of  honey,  to  a  fine  powder, 
add  a  little  gum-Arabic  and  sugar-candy,  with  a  little 
water,  and  mix  it  well  together ;  let  it  dry. 

Sik-cr  Size. — Grind  pipe-clay  fine  with  a  little  black- 
lead  and  good  soap,  and  add  parchment-size  as  directed 
for  gold-size. 

Composition  for  Frame  Ornaments. — The  ornaments 
for  gilded  mirror-frames,  etc.,  are  usually  moulded 
from  some  plastic  substance  that  is  somewhat  toughed 
and  more  durable  than  the  ordinary  gilding  founda- 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  349 

tion  of  whiting  and  size.  The  proper  moulds  being  pre- 
pared they  are  thoroughly  rubbed  upon  the  inside  with 
sweet  oil,  and  the  composition  firmly  pressed  in;  after 
removing  the  mould  the  cast  may  be  dried  by  a  gentle 
heat,  or  while  still  plastic  it  can  be  applied  in  its  proper 
place  and  bent  into  any  position.  Following  are  re- 
ceipts for  composition: 

Dissolve  i  Ib.  of  glue  in  i  gallon  of  water.  In  an- 
other kettle  boil  together  2  Ibs.  of  resin,  i  gill  of  Venice 
turpentine,  and  i  pint  of  linseed  oil ;  mix  altogether  in 
one  kettle,  and  boil  and  stir  till  the  water  has  evaporated. 
Turn  the  whole  into  a  tub  of  finely-rolled  whiting,  and 
work  it  till  it  is  of  the  consistency  of  dough. 

Boil  7  Ibs.  of  best  glue  in  7  half-pints  of  water.  Melt 
3  Ibs.  of  white  resin  in  3  pints  of  raw  linseed  oil.  When 
the  above  has  been  well  boiled  put  them  into  a  large 
vessel  and  simmer  them  for  half  an  hour,  stirring  the 
mixture  and  taking  care  that  it  does  not  boil  over.  The 
whole  must  then  be  turned  into  a  box  of  whiting  rolled 
and  sifted,  and  mixed  till  it  is  of  the  consistency  of 
dough. 

To  Manipulate  Gold  Leaf. — Get  a  piece  of  paper,  thin 
enough  to  show  shadow  of  gold-leaf  through,  slightly 
wax  it,  lay  it  on  gold-leaf,  the  latter  will  then  adhere, 
and  can  be  easily  worked,  and  will  come  off  clean.  The 
paper  should  be  slightly  larger  than  the  gold-leaf,  and 
the  fingers  passed  over  the  paper  to  make  the  gold-leaf 
adhere. 


350  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

Bronzing. — This  is  a  process  for  imitating  on  metal, 
plaster,  wood,  or  other  material,  the  peculiar  appearance 
produced  by  chemical  action  upon  the  surface  of  bronze 
metal.  It  is  accomplished  by  spreading  over  the  surface 
of  the  material  to  be  ornamented  a  very  thin  coating  of 
bronze-powder,  which  is  caused  to  adhere  either  by  ap- 
plying it  directly  upon  a  coating  of  any  of  the  sizes  men- 
tioned in  the  foregoing  pages,  or  by 'mixing  with  a  ve- 
hicle, such  as  gum-Arabic  or  transparent  varnish.  The 
latter  is  most  desirable,  as  in  the  other  case,  being  sub- 
ject to  the  direct  action  of  the  atmosphere,  the  bronze- 
powder  soon  tarnishes.  In  ornamenting  furniture, 
bronzing  is  generally  employed  to  represent  gilding,  a 
variety  of  bronze  called  gold-bronze  being  used,  which 
affords  an  excellent  imitation  but  is  not  very  lasting. 
It  is  usually  applied  after  the  completion  of  the  other 
finishing  processes,  the  ground  work  being  prepared 
in  the  manner  described  under  OIL-GILDING,  and  the 
size  likewise  applied  as  there  described.  A  small  wad 
of  cotton-batting  is  then  dipped  in  the  bronze  and 
passed  gently  over  the  sized  portions,  causing  the 
bronze  to  adhere.  In  the  other  method — that  of  ap- 
plying the  bronze  by  means  of  a  vehicle — the  pre- 
liminaries of  whiting  the  ground  and  sizing  are  not 
necessary,  a  small  quantity  of  bronze  being  simply 
mixed  with  the  vehicle  employed  to  such  a  degree  of 
fluidity  that  it  will  flow  easily,  and  in  that  condition 
applied  with  a  fine  brush.  Many  preparations  are 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  351 

used  as  vehicles,  such  as  transparent  varnish  thinned 
with  turpentine,  gum-Arabic  dissolved  in  water,  and 
gold-size  reduced  with  parchment-size.  There  are  a 
variety  of  colors  in  bronze-powders,  and  to  produce 
the  best  effect  the  size  or  vehicle  should  be  of  a  color 
similar  to  that  of  the  bronze  used;  in  gold-size  the 
coloring  pigment  is  ochre,  and  in  its  place,  for  green- 
bronze,  red-bronze,  or  blue-bronze,  may  be  employed 
respectively  verditer,  vermilion  or  Prussian  blue,  a 
very  small  quantity  being  sufficient.  In  bronzing  on 
painted  work  the  ground  should  be  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible the  color  of  the  bronze  to  be  applied. 


352  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

GLUE. 

Glue. — Glue  is  prepared  from  waste  pieces  of  skin, 
horns,  hoofs,  and  other  animal  offal.  These  are 
steeped,  washed,  boiled,  strained,  melted,  reboiled  and 
cast  into  square  cakes,  which  are  then  dried.  The 
strongest  kind  of  glue  is  made  from  the  hides  of  oxen ; 
that  from  the  bones  and  sinews  is  weaker.  The  older 
the  animal  the  stronger  the  glue.  Good  glue  should 
be  hard  in  the  cake,  of  a  strong,  dark  color,  almost 
transparent,  free  from  black  or  cloudy  spots,  and  with 
little  or  no  smell.  The  best  sorts  are  transparent  and 
of  a  clear  amber  color.  Inferior  kinds  are  sometimes 
contaminated  with  the  lime  used  for  removing  the  hair 
from  the  skins  of  which  they  are  made.  The  best  glue 
swells  considerably  (the  more  the  better)  when  im- 
mersed in  cold  water,  but  does  not  dissolve,  and  re- 
turns to  its  former  size  when  dry.  Inferior  glue  made 
from  bones,  will,  however,  dissolve  almost  entirely  in 
cold  water. 

To  Prepare  Glue. — To  prepare  glue  for  use  it  should 
be  broken  up  into  small  pieces,  and  soaked  in  as  much 
cold  water  as  will  cover  it,  for  about  twelve  hours.  It 
should  then  be  melted  in  a  double  glue  pot,  covered 
to  keep  the  glue  from  dirt.  Care  must  be  taken  to  keep 
the  outer  vessel  full  of  water,  so  that  the  glue  shall  not 
burn,  or  be  brought  to  a  temperature  higher  than  that 
of  boiling  water.  The  glue  is  allowed  to  simmer  for 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  353 

two  or  three  hours,  then  gradually  melted,  so  much  hot 
water  being  added  as  will  make  it  liquid  enough,  just 
to  run  off  a  brush  in  a  continuous  stream,  without 
breaking  into  drops.  When  the  glue  is  done  with,  some 
boiling  water  should  be  added  to  make  it  very  thin 
before  it  is  put  away.  Freshly-made  glue  is  stronger 
than  that  which  has  been  repeatedly  melted.  Too  large 
a  quantity  should  not  therefore  be  made  at  a  time.  Glue 
may  be  freed  from  the  foreign  animal  matter  generally 
in  it  by  softening  it  in  cold  water,  washing  it  with  the 
same  several  times,  till  it  no  longer  gives  out  any  color, 
then  bruising  it  with  the  hand,  and  suspending  it  in  a 
linen  bag  beneath  the  surface  of  a  large  quantity  of 
water  at  66°  Fahr.  By  doing  this  the  pure  glue  is  re- 
tained in  the  bag,  and  the  soluble  impurities  pass 
through.  If  the  softened  glue  be  heated  to  122°  with- 
out water,  and  filtered,  some  other  impurities  will  be 
retained  by  the  filter,  and  a  colorless  solution  of  glue 
be  obtained. 

The  addition  of  a  little  bichromate  of  potash  will 
render  glue  impervious  to  moisture  after  exposing  to 
the  light,  and  a  small  quantity  of  methylated  spirits 
will  greatly  improve  its  keeping  qualities. 

Mixing  Glue. — A  minimum  amount  of  glue  should 
be  used  in  good  work,  and  it  should  be  applied  as  hot 
as  possible.  The  surfaces  of  the  wood  to  be  united 
should  be  clean,  dry,  and  true ;  they  should  be  brought 
together  as  tightly  as  possible,  so  that  the  superfluous 


354  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

glue  is  squeezed  out.  The  cohesion  of  a  piece  of  solid 
glue,  or  "the  force  required  to  separate  one  square  inch, 
is  four  thousand  pounds.  The  strength  of  common 
glue  for  coarse  work  is  increased  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  powdered  chalk.  The  hotter  the  glue  the  greater 
its  cohesion;  therefore  in  all  large  and  long  joints  the 
glue  should  be  applied  immediately  after  boiling.  Glue 
loses  much  of  its  strength  by  frequent  re-melting;  that 
glue,  therefore,  which  is  newly  made,  is  much  prefer- 
able to  that  which  has  been  re-boiled. 

Glue  Pot. — A  glue  pot  recently  perfected  consists  of 
a  circular  kerosene  lamp,  made  of  tin,  resting  upon  a 
tin  bottom  8^  inches  in  diameter.  The  lamp  is  fitted 
with  a  tin  chimney  in  place  of  glass,  and  fitted  with  a 
small  aperture,  covered  with  mica,  so  as  to  see  how  to 
regulate  the  flame.  The  glue  pot  is  made  of  copper, 
tinned  on  the  inside  and  supported  upon  a  rim  setting 
up  about  six  inches  from  the  bottom  of  the  lamp,  the 
rim  supported  by  three  legs,  soldered  and  riveted  to 
the  rim  and  bottom  of  lamp  rest.  The  pot  in  which 
the  bottom  is  placed  has  a  portion  of  the  bottom  arched, 
to  give  more  heating  surface,  and  connecting  with  the 
chamber  under  the  pot  is  a  flue,  passing  out  and  up 
alongside  of  the  pot,  which  carries  off  any  smoke  from 
the  lamp,  and  also  acts  as  a  draft  to  the  flame.  This 
pot  is  five  inches  in  diameter,  and  about  six  inches  high. 
The  pot  for  the  reception  of  the  glue  is  set  in  the 
same  as  an  ordinary  glue  pot,  and  will  hold  about  a 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  355 

quart  of  glue.  The  whole  can  be  carried  to  any  place 
where  you  wish  to  use  it,  and  still  have  the  heat  kept 
up.  The  cost  of  oil  is  but  a  few  cents  a  week. 

Another  improvement  is  in  the  pot  being  of  copper, 
tinned.  It  will  not  corrode  and  spoil  the  glue,  as  is 
the  case  with  iron. 

French  cabinet-makers  use  a  glue  pot  with  an  inside 
pan  made  of  glazed  earthenware  and  divided  radially 
into  three  divisions,  in  one  of  which  is  kept  strong 
glue,  in  another  weaker,  and  in  the  third  water  only, 
with  a  brush  or  piece  of  sponge  for  cleaning  off  super- 
fluous glue  from  the  work. 

A  few  holes  bored  near  the  top  of  the  inner  vessel  of 
a  glue  pot  by  admitting  steam  from  the  outer  vessel 
will  prevent  the  glue  from  solidifying  on  the  side. 
They  need  not  be  bored  round  the  whole  circumference 
of  the  pot,  to  alknv  of  pouring  out  the  glue  if  necessary. 

To  Prevent  Glue  Cracking. — Glue  frequently  cracks 
because  of  the  dryness  of  the  air  in  rooms  warmed  by 
stoves.  The  addition  of  chloride  of  calcium  to  glue 
\vill  prevent  this  disagreeable  property  of  cracking. 
Chloride  of  calcium  is  such  a  deliquescent  salt  that  it 
attracts  enough  moisture  to  prevent  the  glue  from 
cracking.  Glue  thus  prepared  will  adhere  to  glass, 
metal,  etc.,  and  can  be  used  for  putting  on  labels  with- 
out danger  of  their  dropping  off. 

Strong  Glue  to  Resist  Moisture. — Dissolve  gum- 
sandarac  and  mastic,  of  each  a  quarter  of  an  ounce,  in 


356  THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  spirits  of  wine,  to  which  add  a 
quarter  of  an  ounce  of  clear  turpentine;  now  take 
strong  glue,  or  that  in  which  isinglass  has  been  dis- 
solved; then,  putting  the  gums  into  a  double  glue-pot, 
add  by  degrees  the  glue,  constantly  stirring  it  over  the 
fire  till  the  whole  is  well  incorporated ;  strain  it  through 
a  cloth,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  You  may  now  return 
it  to  the  glue  pot,  and  add  half  an  ounce  of  very  finely- 
powdered  glass ;  use  it  quite  hot.  If  you  join  two  pieces 
of  wood  together  with  it,  you  may,  when  perfectly  hard 
and  dry,  immerse  it  in  water,  and  the  joint  will  not 
separate. 

Glue  to  Resist  Moisture. — To  two  quarts  of  skimmed 
milk  add  half  a  pound  of  the  best  glue;  melt  them  to- 
gether, taking  care  they  do  not  boil  over,  and  you  will 
have  a  very  strong  glue,  which  will  resist  damp  or 
moisture. 

Portable  Glue. — Boil  one  pound  of  the  best  glue, 
strain  it  very  clear ;  boil  also  four  ounces  of  isinglass ; 
put  it  into  a  double  glue-pot,  with  half  a  pound  of  fine 
brown  sugar,  and  boil  it  pretty  thick ;  then  pour  it  into 
plates  or  moulds.  When  cold  you  may  cut  and  dry 
them  for  the  pocket. 

This  glue  is  very  useful  to  draughtsmen,  architects, 
etc.,  as  it  immediately  dilutes  in  warm  water,  and 
fastens  the  paper  without  the  process  of  dampening; 
or,  it  may  be  used  by  softening  it  in  the  mouth,  and 
applying  it  to  the  paper. 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  357 

FRESH  AIR  IN  THE  GLUE  ROOM. 

How  to  get  fresh  air  in  the  glue  room  during  the 
hot  periods  of  summer,  and  at  the  same  time  not  have 
the  disturbing  drafts  that  evaporate  thinly-spread  glue, 
is  quite  a  problem.  Yet,  like  many  other  problems,  it 
is  largely  a  matter  of  attention  to  details.  There  are 
various  ways  of  ventilating  rooms  so  as  to  get  fresh 
air  without  getting  a  strong  current.  The  temptation 
is  naturally  strong  to  throw  open  windows  and  doors 
in  hot  weather,  so  as  to  have  a  breeze,  but  generally 
this  is  the  very  thing  one  must  guard  against. 

Some  glue  rooms  that  have  windows  on  one  side 
and  the  other  three  sides  carefully  inclosed,  may  have 
the  windows  opened  without  producing  a  strong  draft, 
but,  even  so,  it  is  better  to  have  window  screens  made 
of  fine,  close-meshed  wire,  something  like  those  used 
on  railway  trains  to  keep  out  the  dust.  They  will  help 
keep  out  the  dust,  keep  out  the  draft,  and  also  keep  out 
insects  that  are  tempted  by  the  odor  of  the  glue  to  make 
a  visit  to  the  glue  room.  There  are  other  variations, 
such  as  letting  down  the  top  windows  instead  of  raising 
the  bottom  ones;  others  in  which  a  box-like  arrange- 
ment opening  upward  instead  of  straight  in,  is  inserted 
under  the  window  to  let  in  the  fresh  air  and  turn  it 
upward  instead  of  across  the  room.  These  are  me- 
chanical ventilators  that  can  be  used  for  scientifically 
ventilating  a  room  without  producing  currents.  And 


358  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

there  are,  in  fact,  many  ways  to  get  around  this  draft 
business,  and  while  their  use  may  deprive  the  glue 
room  of  some  of  the  breeziness  that  is  inviting  in  sum- 
mer, still  they  will  furnish  fresh  air  in  a  manner  that 
is  more  healthful  to  those  working  in  it,  as  well  as 
less  damaging  to  the  glue  work  than  strong  currents. 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  359 

MISCELLANEOUS  RECEIPTS. 

To  Raise  Old  Veneers.— First,  wash  the  surface  with 
boiling  water,  and,  with  a  coarse  cloth,  remove  dirt  or 
grease;  then  place  it  before  the  fire,  or  heat  it  with  a 
caul;  oil  its  surface  with  common  linseed-oil,  place  it 
again  to  the  fire,  and  the  heat  will  make  the  oil  pene- 
trate quite  through  the  veneer,  and  soften  the  glue  un- 
derneath ;  then,  while  hot,  raise  the  edge  gently  with  a 
chisel,  and  it  will  separate  completely  from  the  ground ; 
be  careful  not  to  use  too  great  force,  or  the  work  will 
be  spoiled.  Again,  if  it  should  get  cold  during  the 
operation,  apply  more  oil,  and  heat  it  again.  Repeat 
this  process  till  the  veneer  is  entirely  separated,  then 
wash  off  the  old  glue  and  proceed  to  lay  it  again  as 
a  new  veneer. 

To  Take  Out  Bruises  in  Furniture. — Wet  the  part 
with  warm  water;  double  a  piece  of  brown  paper  five 
or  six  times,  soak  it,  and  lay  it  on  the  place;  apply  on 
that  a  hot  flat-iron  till  the  moisture  is  evaporated.  If 
the  bruise  be  not  gone,  repeat  the  process.  After  two 
or  three  applications,  the  dent  or  bruise  will  be  raised 
level  with  the  surface.  If  the  bruise  be  small,  merely 
soak  it  with  warm  water,  and  apply  a  red-hot  poker 
very  near  the  surface;  keep  it  continually  wet,  and  in 
a  few  minutes  the  bruise  will  disappear. 

To  Make  Paste  for  Laying  Cloth  or  Leather. — To 
a  pint  of  the  best  wheaten  flour  add  resin,  very  finely 


360  THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER 

powdered,  about  two  large  spoonfuls;  of  alum,  one 
spoonful,  in  powder;  mix  them  all  well  together,  put 
them  into  a  pan,  and  add  by  degrees  soft  or  rain  water, 
carefully  stirring  it  till  it  is  of  the  consistence  of  thin- 
nish  cream;  put  it  into  a  saucepan  over  a  clear  fire, 
keeping  it  constantly  stirred,  that  it  may  not  get  lumpy. 
When  it  is  of  a  stiff  consistence,  so  that  the  spoon  will 
stand  upright  in  it,  it  is  done  enough.  Be  careful  to 
stir  it  well  from  the  bottom,  for  it  will  burn  if  not  well 
attended  to.  Empty  it  out  into  a  pan  and  cover  it  over 
till  cold,  to  prevent  a  skin  forming  on  the  top,  which 
would  make  it  lumpy. 

This  paste  is  very  superior  for  the  purpose,  and  ad- 
hesive. To  use  it  for  cloth  or  baize,  spread  the  paste 
evenly  and  smoothly  on  the  top  of  the  table,  and  lay 
the  cloth  on  it,  pressing  and  smoothing  it  with  a  flat 
piece  of  wood;  let  it  remain  till  dry;  then  trim  the 
edges  close  to  the  cross-banding.  If  you  cut  it  close 
at  first,  it  will,  in  drying,  shrink  and  look  bad  where 
it  meets  the  banding  all  round:  If  used  for  leather, 
the  leather  must  be  first  previously  damped,  and  then 
the  paste  spread  over  it;  then  lay  it  on  the  table,  and 
rub  it  smooth  and  level  with  a  linen  cloth,  and  cut  the 
edges  close  to  the  banding  with  a  short  knife.  Some 
lay  their  table  cover  with  glue  instead  of  paste,  and  for 
cloth  perhaps  it  is  the  best  method ;  but  for  leather  it 
is  not  proper,  as  glue  is  apt  to  run  through.  In  using 
it  for  cloth,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  glue  be 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  361 

not  too  thin,  and  that  the  cloth  be  well  rubbed  down 
with  a  thick  piece  of  wood  made  hot  at  the  fire,  for  the 
glue  soon  chills.  By  this  method,  the  edges  may  be  cut 
off  close  to  the  border  at  once. 

Cements  for  Stopping  Flaws  in  Wood. — Put  any 
quantity  of  fine  sawdust  of  the  same  wood  your  work 
is  made  with  into  an  earthen  pan,  and  pour  boiling 
water  on  it,  stir  it  well,  and  let  it  remain  for  a  week 
or  ten  days,  occasionally  stirring  it;  then  boil  it  for 
some  time,  and  it  will  be  of  the  consistence  of  pulp  or 
paste;  put  it  into  a  coarse  cloth,  and  squeeze  all  the 
moisture  from  it.  Keep  for  use,  and,  when  wanted, 
mix  a  sufficient  quantity  of  thin  glue  to  make  it  into 
a  paste ;  rub  it  well  into  the  cracks,  or  fill  up  the  holes 
in  your  work  with  it.  When  quite  hard  and  dry,  clean 
your  work  off,  and  if  carefully  done,  you  will  scarcely 
discern  the  imperfection. 

Mahogany-Colored  Cement. — Melt  two  ounces  of 
beeswax  and  half  an  ounce  of  Indian  red,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  yellow  ochre,  to  bring  the  cement  to  the 
desired  color;  keep  it  in  a  pipkin  for  use. 

Cement  for  Turners. — Melt  together  beeswax,  one 
ounce ;  resin,  half  an  ounce ;  and  pitch,  half  an  ounce ; 
stir  in  the  mixture  some  very  fine  brickdust  to  give  it  a 
body.  If  too  soft,  add  more  resin;  if  too  hard,  more 
wax.  When  nearly  cold,  make  it  up  into  cakes  or 
rolls,  which  keep  for  use. 

This  will  be  found  very  useful  for  fastening  any 


362  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

piece  of  wood  on  the  chuck,  which  is  done  by  applying 
the  roller  of  cement  to  the  chuck  and  it  will  adhere 
with  sufficient  force. 

To  Cut  Good  Steel  Scrapers. — Part  of  the  blade  of  a 
broken  saw  makes  the  best  scrapers ;  but,  as  it  is  hard, 
it  is  very  difficult  to  cut  it  into  the  required  form.  The 
best  and  most  expeditious  way  is  to  mark  it  out  to  the 
size  wanted,  and  then  to  place  the  blade  or  steel  plate 
in  a  vice  whose  chaps  shut  very  close,  placing  the  mark 
even  with  the  face  of  the  vise,  and  the  part  to  be  cut 
to  waste  above  the  vise.  Then  with  a  cold-chisel,  or  a 
common  steel-firmer  that  has  its  basil  broken  off,  hold- 
ing it  close  to  the  vise  and  rather  inclined  upwards, 
begin  at  one  end  of  the  steel  plate,  and  with  a  sharp 
blow  of  the  hammer  it  will  cut  it.  Keep  going  on  by 
degrees,  and  you  will  with  ease  cut  it  to  the  shape  re- 
quired ;  then  grind  the  edges  of  your  scraper  level,  and 
finish  by  rubbing  it  on  your  oil  stone. 

To  Clean  Oil  Paintings. — Wash  with  a  sponge  or  a 
soft  leather  and  water,  and  dry  by  rubbing  with  a  silk 
handkerchief.  When  the  picture  is  very  dirty,  take  it 
out  of  its  frame,  procure  a  clean  towel,  and  making  it 
quite  wet,  lay  it  on  the  face  of  the  picture,  sprinkling 
it  from  time  to  time  with  clear  soft  water ;  let  it  remain 
wet  for  two  or  three  days ;  take  the  cloth  off  and  renew 
it  with  a  fresh  one:  after  wiping  the  picture  with  a 
clean  wet  sponge,  repeat  the  process  till  all  the  dirt  is 
soaked  out ;  then  wash  it  well  with  a  soft  sponge,  and  let 


THE   PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  363 

it  get  dry;  rub  it  with  some  clear  nut  or  linseed  oil. 
Spirits  of  wine  and  turpentine  may  be  used  to  dissolve 
the  hard  old  varnish,  but  they  will  attack  the  paint  as 
well  as  the  varnish  if  the  further  action  of  the  spirits 
is  not  stopped  at  the  proper  time  by  using  water  freely. 

Cleaning  Varnished  Pictures. — There  are  conditions 
where  the  above  simple  process  will  not  accomplish 
what  is  required ;  where  a  thick  coating  of  varnish  has 
been  applied  to  the  picture,  and  it  has  been  hung  in  a 
smoky  room,  and  dust  and  dirt  has  been  allowed  to 
gather  and  remain;  then  it  is  that  no  high  lights  will 
be  visible,  the  sky  will  be  dirty,  no  distance  visible,  and 
perhaps  the  figures  in  the  foreground  very  indistinct. 
Under  these  conditions  the  varnish  must  be  either  re- 
moved or  the  smoke  and  dirt  must  be  brought  out  of  the 
varnish.  If  it  is  thought  desirable  to  try  the  latter, 
the  following  receipt  will  be  found  valuable  for  the 
purpose :  2  oz.  wood  naptha,  i  oz.  spirits  of  salts,  }4 
pint  of  linseed-oil. 

Mix  the  above  well  together,  and  before  using  shake 
the  bottle.  It  can  be  used  as  follows :  Get  some  soft 
linen  rag,  and  make  up  a  soft  pad,  which  place  on  the 
mouth  of  the  bottle  and  shake  up  some  of  the  mixture 
into  the  pad,  then  commence  rubbing  the  picture  with 
a  circular  motion,  and  when  nearly  dry  again  give  the 
pad  another  dressing  of  mixture,  and  continue  this 
mode  of  procedure  for  some  time,  when  the  picture  will 
gradually  come  out  in  all  its  detail. 


364  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

Cleaning  Engravings. — Put  the  engraving  on  a 
smooth  board,  cover  it  thinly  with  common  salt  finely 
powdered.  Squeeze  lemon  juice  upon  the  salt  so  as  to 
dissolve  a  considerable  portion  of  it;  elevate  one  end 
of  the  board  so  that  it  may  form  an  angle  of  about 
45  or  50  degrees.  Pour  on  the  engraving  boiling  water 
from  a  tea  kettle  until  the  salt  and  lemon  juice  be  all 
washed  off.  The  engraving  then  will  be  perfectly  clean 
and  free  from  stains.  It  must  be  dried  on  the  board  or 
some  smooth  surface  gradually.  If  dried  by  the  fire  or 
the  sun  it  will  be  tinged  with  a  yellow  color. 

Cleaning  Engravings. — Presuming  these  to  be 
mounted,  proceed  in  the  following  manner:  Cut  a 
stale  loaf  in  half,  with  a  perfectly  clean  knife ;  pare  the 
crust  away  from  the  edges.  Now  place  the  engravings 
on  a  perfectly  flat  table,  and  rubbing  the  surface  with  the 
fresh-cut  bread,  in  circular  sweeps,  lightly  but  firmly 
performed,  will  remove  all  superficial  markings.  Xo\v 
soak  the  prints  for  a  short  time  in  a  dilute  solution  of 
hydrochloric  acid,  say  i  part  acid  to  100  of  water,  and 
then  remove  them  into  a  vessel  containing  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  clear  chloride  lime  water  to  cover  them. 
Leave  them  there  until  bleached  to  the  desired  point. 
Now  remove,  rinse  well  by  allowing  to  stand  an  hour 
in  a  pan  in  which  a  constant  stream  of  water  is  allowed 
to  flow,  and  finally  dry  off  by  spreading  on  clean  cloths. 
Perhaps  the  sheets  may  require  ironing  between  two 
sheets  of  clean  paper. 


THE    PRACTICAL   CABINET    MAKER  365 

To  Smooth  a  Damaged  Picture. — Paintings  some- 
times get  convex  and  concave  patches  on  their  surface, 
owing  to  pressure  on  one  side  or  the  other,  and  these 
inequalities  cause  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  bring  out. 
The  most  successful  way  is  to  well  wet  both  sides  of 
the  picture  on  the  spot,  and  keep  it  under  pressure  till 
dry.  With  small  pictures  the  quickest  way  would  be  to 
take  them  off  the  stretcher  and  lay  them  in  a  press,  with 
a  light  pressure  between  soft  sheets  of  paper. 

Embossed  Gilding  for  Illuminating. — Gilding  of 
figures  and  letters  on  paper  and  for  the  embellishment 
of  manuscripts,  is  performed  with  shell  gold  tempered 
with  gum  water ;  or  the  characters  may  be  drawn  with 
a  milky  solution  of  gum  ammanacum  made  in  water, 
and  ^old  leaf  applied  upon  them  when  almost  dry;  they 
may  again  be  sufficiently  moistened  for  receiving  the 
gold  by  breathing  on  them.  Letters  raised  from  the 
surface,  if  paper  or  parchment  in  the  manner  of  em- 
bossed work,  such  as  are  seen  on  ancient  manuscripts, 
may  be  formed  either  by  friction  on  a  proper  body  with 
a  solid  piece  of  gold,  or  by  leaf  gold. 

The  former  method  is  practiced  by  tempering  pul- 
verizers' crystal  with  strong  gum  water,  and  with  this 
paste  forming  the  letters ;  when  they  are  dry,  they  are 
rubbed  with  a  piece  of  solid  gold  as  in  polishing,  and 
the  letters  will  appear  as  if  gilt  with  burnished  gold. 
The  letters  are  formed  with  an  embossed  figure,  either 
of  the  separate  letters  or  of  whole  words  cut  in  steel, 


366  THE    PRACTICAL    CABINET    MAKER 

and  each  letter  of  these  stamps  when  they  are  used,  is 
oiled  evenly  with  a  feather.  Then  fill  these  concave 
letters  with  the  above  paste,  and  strike  the  stamps  in  a 
perpendicular  direction  on  the  paper  or  vellum  laid  on 
sheets  of  soft  paper. 

When  the  embossed  letters  are  formed  with  leaf 
gold,  the  following  or  a  similar  composition  must  be 
used.  Thicken  beaten  whites  of  eggs  with  as  much 
vermilion  as  is  necessary  to  give  them  the  consistence 
of  paste ;  use  the  stamps  as  before,  and  when  the  letters 
are  dry  moisten  them  by  a  small  pencil  with  strong  gum 
water,  and  when  this  is  almost  dry  cover  the  letters 
with  leaf  gold,  pressing  it  close  to  every  part  of  them 
with  cotton  wood ;  when  dry,  burnish. 


INDEX 


American  Mechanics    •        ia 

Apprentice  Question    16 

Art,  The  New    ."  .' '  '  ! !  186 

B 

Barogne    Style 74 

Beds,  Covered .140 

Elaborate     153 

German  Covered    160 

Napoleonic     .164 

Roman     104 

With  Canopy 143 

Greek  and  Roman    31 

Bellows   and  Chairs,  Carved 51 

Bench   Hands    11 

Bleaching     293 

Book-Cases,  Revolving,  How  to  Make 306 

Sheraton 167 

Books  on  Cabinet  Making 18 

British   Museum  Treasures 103 

Burnishing     347 

C 

Cabinet  Makers,  Egyptian    24 

Cabinets     141 

Cairene     47 

Costly    151,  202 

French     56 

Hanging    209 

Inlaid     69 

Wine    100 

Candelabra     28 

Carriages  and  Carts,  Old   45 

Cements,  Cabinet  Maker's   

Chairs,  Beds  and  Tables,  Egyptian 

367 


Page 

Chairs,  Corner     264 

Coronation     44 

Double,    by    Sheraton 174 

Dutch     191 

Easy    Backed    155 

Gothic    127 

Greek     26 

Heppelwhite    182 

High  Backed    194 

How  to  Make    267 

Marie  Antoinette   150 

Of   Dagobert    38 

Of  State    129 

Of  St.  Maximian   36 

Old       193 

Old   Spanish    165 

Ponderous    195 

Queen  Hatasus    117 

Scandinavian    37 

Throne     34 

Two   German    161 

Chinese   Style    85 

Work 138 

Chippendale,  Thomas    84 

Chippendale  Work    181 

Cinquecento  Period    52 

Classical  Style 121 

Cleaning   Engravings    364 

Oil   Paintings    362 

Clock,  Grandfather's     260 

Old  Mahogany    262 

Coffers,  Carved     50 

Egyptian    106 

Marriage     49 

Couch    157 

Cutting   Veneers    278 

Dovetailing    222 

Method  of  •» 269 

F 

Framed  Work    232 

French  Polishing     285 

French  Renaissance     57 

Fumigating    295 

Fumigation,  Natural    295 

Furniture,  Anglo-Norman 39 

Anglo-Saxon     38 

Assyrian    22 

368 


Furniture    Byzantine     

Chaldean     '  135 

Dining   Room 214 


Dutch 


61 


English 58 

Etruscan     ' '   yi 

Fashion   in    \\\  94 

Flemish    58 

Fourteenth   Century    137 

French     55 

Hand   Made    ...............'.   15 

History    of    19 

Homely     13 

Indian     64 

King  Solomon's   23 

Lacquered    88 

Making    10 

Medieval     41 

Old     93,  131 

Pompeiian    31 

Roman    27 

Saracenic     45 

Scriptural     21 

Siam     126 

Solid  Wood   99 

Some  Egyptian    122 

Spanish     59 

Styles  and  Details  of 90 

Venetian    61 

G 

German  Renaissance  58 

Gibbons,  Grenling,  Carver 71 

Gilding,  Embossed   365 

Gilding,  Silvering  and  Bronzing 339 

Glue     352 

Portable     35fl 

Pot     354 

Room,  Fresh  Air  in    357 

Gothic   Period    40 

Great  Bed  of  Ware  58 

H 

Hinges     236 

Hinge  for  Table  231 

Hinging,  General    238 

Household  Article,  Old    « 

369 


I 

Page 

Inlaid   Work    67 

Interior,   Oriental 188 

Italian    Renaissance    48 

J 

Job  Work 12 

Joints,  Cabinet 225 

Cabinet    Maker's    217 

Capped     228 

Dowel     219 

Feather    220 

Grooved    218 

Miter     226 

Mortise  and  Tenon   223 

Plain   Glued    218 

Rule     240 

Scribed    229 

K 
Koran  Holder 190 

L 

L'Art   Nouveau    186 

Lamp    Stand    32 

Louis  Quatorze  Period    63 

Louis  Quinze   Period   70 

M 

Machine   Men    14 

Making  Drawers  Slide  Easily 272 

Marquetry     66 

Middle  Age  Interior   130 

Mirror   Frames    65 

Mirrors,   Hand    26 

Mission  and  Crafts  Examples 311 

Fads 187 

Work     243 

Mobilia     102 

Moorish  Taste    Ill 

Mouldings,  Built  up    234 

Planted     230 

Solid     230 

Mummy  Cases    22 

N 

Novelty 95 

Novelty,  Taste  and  Utility  112 

370 


Oil   Polishin 


Picture  Frames,  Composition  for  ...  348 

Pierre   Boulle    ............................  .'  '  '     64 

Plate         I.  Gothic  Interior    .......  ....                                  101 

Plate       II.  Louis  XV  and  XVI  Details    .                                   '  107 

Plate      III.  Louis    Seize   Detail  ........                                        113 

Plate      IV.  Two  Tables    .........................              132 

Plate        V.  Empire    Details    .....................                134 

Plate      VI.  Empire    Style    ...............................  136 

Plate    VII.  German   Renaissance    ...........                             138 

Plate  VIII.  Chippendale    Style    ..........................  155 

Plate      IX.  Chippendale    Details     .........................  159 

Plate        X.  Sheraton   Style    ..............................  163 

Plate      XI.  Heppelwhite    Details    ........................  166 

Plate    XII.  Heppelwhite    Style    ...........................  170 

Plate  XIII.  Adam's   Style    ...............................  177 

Plate  XIV.  Adam's  Interior   .............................  183 

Plate    XV.  Swiss  Examples    .............................  189 

Plate  XVI.  The  New  Art  Interior  ......................  192 

Q 

Quattrocento    Period    .....................................  49 

R 

Receipts,  Miscellaneous    ..................................  359 

Repairs     ................................................  293 

Revivers  for  Furniture   ....................................  293 

Roman    Curule     ..........................................   29 

S 
Seats,   Antique    ..........................................    35 

Of   the  Ancients    .................................   43 

Seventeenth  Century  Work    ..............................  108 

Sideboards     .............................................  206 

Details   of    ....................................  251 

Furnished     .....................................  254 

How  to  Make    .................................  247 

View  of   ......................................  248 

Smothing  a  Damaged  Picture  ........................ 

Sofa,   Sheraton    ..........................................  175 

Staining  and  Varnishing  ..................................  304 

Style,  Details  of  ....  .....................................   90 

Domestic     .........................................  121 

Empire     ..........................................   86 

371 


Page 

Style,  Florid    121 

Grotesque     121 

Mannerisms  of   92 

Marie  Antoinette   92 

Of  Cabinet  Work  17 

Persian     64 

Portuguese     64 

Rococo     , 73 

Romanesque     38 

Turkish 90 

Vernis   Martin    77 

Styles,  Synopsis  of    203 

Subdivision   of   Work    11 

Sweating    Out    394 

T 

Tabernacle    21 

Table,  Circular    158 

Dining     199 

Double     83 

Dressing     78 

Handy    245 

Marie  Antoinette    148 

Mission    241 

Riesner     152 

Roman    30 

Square     197 

Unique   Circular    179 

Taste  in  Construction 115 

Throne,  Assyrian  25 

Tools,  Workman's    215 

Trade  Unionism    212 

U 
Upholsterer's   Trade    .  . .   97 


Up 
Uti 


tility    116 

V 

Vehicles,    Covered    46 

Veneered  Work,  Modern   99 

Veneering,  Staining  and  Finishing 276 

W 

Wax  Polishing    299 

Work-Shop  Kinks  and  Staining  Receipts 324 

Writing  Desk    81 

Writing  Desk  and  Cabinet   200 

372 


TT 
JJi. 


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